CHAPTER 6 Refining the accounting database Contents Accruals

CHAPTER 6 Refining the accounting database

Contents Accruals and deferrals of expenses and revenues q Provisions q Asset impairment q Bad debts and doubtful debts q Hidden reserves q Capital structure q

Accruals and deferrals of expenses and revenues q Timing differences between occurrence and notification of economic events v Regular accounting entries are triggered by notifications received in advance or after the fact v Period matching requires adjustments when preparing financial statements q Time-based expenses and revenues

Accruals and deferrals of expenses and revenues (cont. ) q q Accruals are previously unrecorded expenses and revenues that need to be adjusted at the end of the accounting period to reflect the amount of expenses incurred or revenues earned during the accounting period Deferrals are previously recorded (and probably paid / received) expenses and revenues that have to be adjusted at the end of the accounting period by deferring part of them to the following accounting period

Accrued expenses – example q Gas bill for 1, 200 received in February 20 X 0 for period of November 20 X 0 through January 20 X 1 Expenses relate to 20 X 0 (800) and to 20 X 1 (400) v No regular accounting entry yet on 31/12/20 X 0 v Þ Adjustment on 31/12/20 X 0: Ø Operating expense of 800 in the income statement (- Equity) Ø ‘Accrued expense’ on financing side of BS (+ Liability)

Example – Accrued expenses End of 20 X 0 20 X 1 Cash 0 -1, 200 Total Financing Short-term liabilities 0 -1, 200 +800 -800 Assets Accrued expenses Equity Profit 20 X 0 Profit 20 X 1 Total -800 -400 0 -1, 200

Deferred expenses – example q Annual insurance premium of 2, 400 paid on 1 April 20 X 0 for period extending to end of March 20 X 1 Expenses relate to 20 X 0 (1, 800) and to 20 X 1 (600) v Regular accounting entry for the full amount on 01/04/20 X 0 v Þ Adjustment on 31/12/20 X 0: Ø Expense of 600 deferred to the following year (+ Equity) Ø ‘Deferred expense’ on asset side of BS (+ Asset)

Example – Deferred expenses Arrival of notification End of 20 X 0 20 X 1 +600 -600 Assets Cash Deferred expenses/ Prepayments -2, 400 Total Financing Equity -2, 400 +600 Profit 20 X 0 -2, 400 +600 Profit 20 X 1 Total -600 -2, 400 +600 -600

Deferred revenues – example q Annual subscription fee of 1, 400 received by a publishing company at the start of the annual subscription period (1 April 20 X 0) Revenues relate to 20 X 0 (1, 050) and to 20 X 1 (350) v Regular accounting entry for the full amount on 01/04/20 X 0 v Þ Adjustment on 31/12/20 X 0: Ø Revenue of 350 deferred to the following year (- Equity) Ø ‘Deferred revenue’ on financing side of BS (+ Liability)

Example – Deferred revenues Time of notification End of 20 X 0 20 X 1 0 0 +350 -350 Assets Cash +1, 400 Total +1, 400 Financing Short-term liabilities Deferred revenue Equity Profit 20 X 0 +1, 400 -350 Profit 20 X 1 Total +350 +1, 400 0 0

Accrued revenues – example q Annual interest income of 9 per cent on a loan of 100, 000 granted on 1 September 20 X 0 and to be received at the end of the one-year term Interest income relates to 20 X 0 (3, 000) and to 20 X 1 (6, 000) v No regular accounting entry yet on 31/12/20 X 0 v Þ Adjustment on 31/12/20 X 0: Ø Interest income of 3, 000 in the income statement (+ Equity) Ø ‘Accrued income’ on asset side of BS (+ Asset)

Example – Accrued revenues Assets Accrued income Cash Total Financing End of 20 X 0 20 X 1 +3, 000 -3, 000 +9, 000 +3, 000 +6, 000 Equity Profit 20 X 0 Profit 20 X 1 Total +3, 000 +6, 000

Provisions q A provision is a present obligation as a result of a past event, whereby It is probable that settlement of the obligation will lead to a future outflow of company resources v The amount or timing of future outflow is uncertain v A reliable estimate of the amount of the obligation is feasible v q Creation of the provision: v q Assets 0 = Equity + Liabilities IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets

IAS 37 - Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets (Extract) 14. A provision shall be recognised when: (a) an entity has a present obligation (legal or constructive) as a result of a past event; (b) it is probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation; and (c) a reliable estimate can be made of the amount of the obligation. Source: IAS 37 - Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets

Figure 6. 1 Decision tree - Recognising a provision Start Present obligation as a result of an obligating event No Possible obligation ? No Yes Probable outflow ? No Yes Reliable estimate ? Remote? No (rare) Yes Provide Disclose contingent liability Do nothing Source: IAS 37 – Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets

Contingent liability q A contingent liability refers to 1. 2. q A possible obligation that arises from past events and whose existence will be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future events not wholly within the control of the company, or A present obligation that is not recognised because the future expenditure is not probable or the obligation cannot be measured with sufficient reliability Not recognised in the balance sheet, but disclosure in the notes to the accounts

Applying the decision tree - Product warranty A manufacturer of domestic appliances sells its products with a three-year product warranty. If the product breaks down within a 3 -years period, the manufacturer will fix or replace the product on its own expenses. Questions: 1) Present obligation as a result of a past event? 2) Future outflow of company resources probable? 3) Reliable estimate possible?

Applying the decision tree - Litigation During 20 X 1 six people have died after a banquet, supposedly of food poisoning. The catering company has been summoned. At the end of the 20 X 1 fiscal year the company’s legal advisors assume that the firm will probably win the case. However, new evidence that surfaces during 20 X 2 makes the legal advisors change their mind at the end of that year they expect that the catering company will probably lose the case. Questions: 1) Present obligation as a result of a past event? 2) Future outflow of company resources probable? 3) Reliable estimation possible?

Applying the decision tree - Major repairs and overhaul Some tangible assets require not only routine maintenance, but also major periodic ‘refits’ and replacement of major components. E. g. an electric power station – a 30 -year useful life – replacement of the steam generator is normally required after 10 years + Major maintenance every 5 years Questions: 1) Present obligation as a result of a past event? 2) Future outflow of company resources probable? 3) Reliable estimation possible?

Applying the decision tree - Financial guarantee In 20 X 1 company A decides to guarantee part of company B’s borrowings. At the end of 20 X 1 company B may be described as financially healthy. However, by the end of 20 X 2 company B has gone into receivership. Questions: 1) Present obligation as a result of a past event? 2) Future outflow of company resources probable? 3) Reliable estimation possible?

Provision accounting 1. Provision accounting – create provision Equity Create provision Profit for the year -15, 000 Provisions +15, 000 Liabilities 2. Provision accounting – use provision Assets Use provision Cash -15, 000 Provisions -15, 000 Liabilities 3. Provision accounting – reverse provision Equity Profit for the year Liabilities Provisions Reverse provision +15, 000 -15, 000

Accounting for provisions -Example 1) 2) 3) At the end of 20 X 1 a provision is created for € 20, 000 During 20 X 2 costs covered by the provision are expensed for a total amount of € 8, 000 At the end of 20 X 3 further expenditure relating to the provision is no longer expected and the outstanding balance of the provision is reversed

Accounting for provisions (2) 20 X 1 20 X 2 20 X 3 Accumul Assets Cash Total 0 0 +20, 000 Liab. /Equity Provisions Equity Profit 20 X 1 Profit 20 X 2 -20, 000 Profit 20 X 3 Total 0 0

Accounting for provisions (3) 20 X 1 20 X 2 20 X 3 Accumul Assets Cash Total -8, 000 (1) -8, 000 0 -8, 000 +20, 000 -8, 000 (2) +12, 000 Liab. /Equity Provisions Equity Profit 20 X 1 Profit 20 X 2 -20, 000 -8, 000 (1) +8, 000(2) Profit 20 X 3 Total 0 -8, 000

Accounting for provisions (4) 20 X 1 20 X 2 20 X 3 Accumul Assets Cash Total -8, 000 (1) -8, 000 0 -8, 000 +20, 000 -8, 000 (2) -12, 000 0 Liab. /Equity Provisions Equity Profit 20 X 1 Profit 20 X 2 -8, 000 -20, 000 -8, 000 (1) +8, 000(2) Profit 20 X 3 Total +12, 000 0 -8, 000

Asset impairment An asset is considered to have become impaired if its remaining expected future benefits drop below its net carrying value q If so, the carrying value of the asset will be adjusted for an impairment loss q IAS 36 Impairment of assets q

Impairment testing q q At each balance sheet date, assets have to be reviewed for indications of possible impairment If there is an indication of impairment, an impairment test will be carried out Compare net carrying amount and ‘recoverable amount’ v Recoverable amount = value recoverable through use or sale v

Recoverable amount q q q The recoverable amount is the higher of an asset’s fair value less costs to sell and its value in use Fair value of an asset is the amount for which the asset could be exchanged between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm’s length transaction Value in use is the present value of estimated future cash flows from continued use of the asset and eventual disposal at the end of its useful life

Figure 6. 2 Recoverable amount Carrying value compare Recoverable amount < is higher of > Fair value less costs to sell Value in use

Figure 6. 3 - Impairment test Are there indications of potential impairment of the asset ? No Yes FV = Fair Value CA = Carrying amount VIU = Value in use Can one determine the fair value (FV) of the asset ? Yes Is FV less costs to sell > CA ? Yes No Calculate VIU No IS VIU > CA ? No Impairment Yes No Impairment loss

Accounting for impairment If an impairment test shows that the recoverable amount of an asset is lower than its net carrying amount, the asset value is written down to the lower value q The asset write-down is expensed as an q impairment loss v Assets = Equity + Liabilities 0

Accounting for impairment (cont. ) q Impairment rationale v If impairment and the asset value were left unadjusted => overestimation of future economic benefits and current profit q In case of subsequent increase of the recoverable amount => Reversal of impairment loss

Impairment of a fixed asset Illustration Assume a company acquired on 2 January 20 X 1 a specialized machine for € 1, 500, 000, expecting to use it to produce a specific item for 12 years. The equipment was depreciated on a straight-line basis. By the end of 20 X 4 demand for the specific product has dropped so much that the company expects that the net cash flows the item would generate over the remainder of its product life cycle would be less than the machine’s net carrying value (€ 1, 000). The value in use was estimated at € 800, 000, while the estimated net selling price on 1 January 20 X 5 was € 750, 000. The equipment is therefore written down to € 800, 000, its estimated value in use, and the impairment loss is recognised in the 20 X 4 income statement

Cash-generating units q q q Impairment testing is done at the individual or aggregate asset level A cash-generating unit is the smallest identifiable group of assets that generate cash flows that are largely independent of the cash flows from other (groups of) assets The existence of an active market for the output produced by a group of assets constitutes primary evidence that cash flows are independent

Individual assets versus cashgenerating units - Example 1 A mining entity owns a private railway to support its mining activities. The private railway could be sold only for scrap value and it does not generate cash inflows that are largely independent of the cash inflows from the other assets of the mine. It is not possible to estimate the recoverable amount of the private railway because its value in use cannot be determined and is probably different from scrap value. Therefore, the entity estimates the recoverable amount of the cash-generating unit to which the private railway belongs, i. e. the mine as a whole. Source: IAS 36 - Impairment of Assets, par. 67 & 68

Individual assets versus cashgenerating units - Example 2 A bus company provides services under contract with a municipality that requires minimum service on each of five separate routes. Assets devoted to each route and the cash flows from each route can be identified separately. One of the routes operates at a significant loss. Because the entity does not have the option to curtail any one bus route, the lowest level of identifiable cash inflows that are largely independent of the cash inflows from other assets or groups of assets is the cash inflows generated by the five routes together. The cash-generating unit for each route is the bus company as a whole. Source: IAS 36 - Impairment of Assets, par. 67 & 68

Identification of a CGU in a retail store chain -Illustration Store Downtown belongs to Alphaline, a retail store chain. Downtown makes all its retail purchases through the central purchasing centre of Alphaline. Pricing, marketing, advertising and human resources policies (except for hiring X’s cashiers and sales staff) are decided at corporate level. Alphaline also owns five other stores in the same city as Downtown (although in different neighbourhoods) and 20 other stores in other cities. All stores are managed uniformly. In identifying a cash-generating unit in this context, one should consider, for example, whether internal management reporting is organised to measure performance on a store-by-store basis and whether the business is run on a storeby-store profit basis or on a region/city basis. Although the stores of Alphaline are managed at a corporate level, they are all located in different neighbourhoods and probably have different customer bases. Downtown generates cash inflows that are largely independent of those of the other sores of the retail chain and, therefore, it is likely that Downtown is a cash-generating unit. Source: Adapted from IAS 36 – Illustrative Examples

Identification of a CGU in a single product company - Illustration Company Unique produces a single product and owns plants A, B and C. Each plant is located in a different continent. Plant A produces a component that is assembled in either B or C. Alternatively, plant A’s products can be sold in an active market. The combined capacity of B and C is not fully utilised. Unique’s products are sold worldwide from either plant B or C. For example, plant B’s production can be sold in plant C’s continent if the products can be delivered faster from plant B than from plant C. Utilisation levels of plants B and C depend on the allocation of sales between the two sites.

Identification of a CGU in a single product company – Illustration (cont. ) As there is an active market for plant A’s products, A could sell its product in that market and so, generate cash inflows that would be largely independent of the cash inflows from plants B or C. Therefore, it is likely that plant A is a separate cash-generating unit, although part of its output is used by plants B and C. Although there is an active market for the products assembled by plants B and C, cash inflows for B and C depend on the allocation of production across the two plants. It is unlikely that the future cash inflows for plants B and C can be determined individually. This brings us to conclude that plant B and plant C together are the smallest identifiable group of assets that generates cash inflows that are largely independent. Source: Adapted from IAS 36 – Illustrative Examples

Bad debts and doubtful debts q q Impairment adjustments relating to the noncollection of company receivables Two separate aspects to take into account the collectability risk of receivables: On the evidence available, specific receivables are not likely ever to be paid (bad debts) v A more general assessment of the collectability of all receivables (doubtful debts) v

Bad debt expense q q If it is decided that the amount of a receivable is not recoverable, it will be categorised as a bad debt and removed from the receivables’ total The amount outstanding of the receivable (asset) is cancelled and a corresponding bad debt expense is entered in the income statement

Allowance for doubtful debts q q An allowance for doubtful debts is an adjustment to take a prudent view of the likely value to be received from the current receivables’ balance at the balance sheet date The allowance is expensed in the income statement, while a credit balance is entered in the balance sheet accounts (5 valuation allowance account as a negative asset)

Example – Adjusting receivables The company decides to treat a receivable of £ 1, 000 as definitely bad and to set aside a further £ 1, 300 as an allowance for doubtful debts. Within the company’s accounting records, the entries would be: Write off bad debt Create allowance Assets Receivables Valuation allowance – 1, 000 – 1, 300 Equity Profit for the year – 1, 000 – 1, 300

Hidden reserves refers to the conservative tendency to reduce current profits and store them for less profitable (future) accounting periods q Instruments: q Creation of excessive provisions or provisions for non-existing obligations ü Excessive asset write-downs/impairments ü Adjustments of accrued/deferred expenses/revenues ü

Hidden reserves (cont. ) Structural sources of hidden reserves: v Rapid depreciation and amortisation v Low capitalization of costs v Inventory valuation § LIFO in an environment characterized by rising prices v Historical cost principle

Capital structure q q Companies are externally financed either with equity or debt Equity participates fully in the risks and rewards of ownership v v q No guaranteed return, but no upper limit either Downside risk is limited to the amount of the investment Debt is usually advanced for a fixed period, earns a fixed return and must be repaid at end of period v v Short, medium or long term In different currencies From a variety of sources Return may be a floating rate

Components of equity q Share capital v Ordinary shares Par or nominal value § Different categories may imply different voting rights § v q Share premium v v q Preference shares Difference of issue price and par value of shares Issue costs are offset against share premium Reserves v v Capital reserves Revenue reserves (retained profits)

Preference shares q Characteristics of debt Fixed return v Holders do not routinely have voting rights v q But: Preference dividend may not be paid if there are no profits v Preference dividend is not tax deductible v q Preference dividends are usually cumulative

Convertibles q q Convertible securities are either preference shares or debt (convertible debentures) which can be converted at some point in the future into ordinary shares Other types of complex financial instruments which combine elements of debt and of equity (mezzanine debt, capital bonds and perpetual loan notes)