Chapter 6 Poverty and Economic Inequality Chapter Outline

Chapter 6 Poverty and Economic Inequality

Chapter Outline • • • The Global Context: Poverty and Economic Inequality around the World Sociological Theories of Poverty and Economic Inequality and Poverty in the United States

Chapter Outline • • • Consequences of Poverty and Economic Inequality Strategies for Action: Antipoverty Programs, Policies, and Proposals Understanding Poverty and Economic Inequality

Defining and Measuring Poverty • • • Poverty is the lack of resources necessary for material well-being: food, water, housing, land, and health care. Lack of resources that leads to hunger and physical deprivation is absolute poverty. Relative poverty refers to a deficiency in material and economic resources compared with some other population.

Poverty • Washington, DC, the capitol of one of the wealthiest nations in the world, has one of the highest rates of poverty in the United States.

Poverty Thresholds: 2006 (Householder Younger Than 65) Household Makeup Poverty Threshold One adult $10, 488 Two adults $13, 500 One adult, one child $13, 896 Two adults, one child $16, 227 Two adults, two children $20, 444

Human Poverty Index (HPI) • Based on three measures of deprivation: 1. Deprivation of life. 2. Deprivation of knowledge. 3. Deprivation in living standards.

Global Poverty and Economic Inequality • • • More than one-fourth of the world’s population live on less than $2 a day and about 1 billion people live on less than $1 a day. Every day, nearly 1 in 5 of the world’s population goes hungry. The richest 1 percent in the world own 40% of global household wealth; the richest 2% own more than half of global wealth; and the richest 10% own 85% of total global wealth.

Structural-Functionalist Perspective Poverty and economic inequality serve positive functions for society: • Low-paid, poor workers are willing to do dirty, dangerous, difficult work others refuse to do • Poverty provides work for those in “poverty industry” (e. g. welfare workers). • Poor people provide market for inferior goods.

Culture of Poverty • • Institutional breakdowns create a “culture of poverty” whereby the poor develop norms, values, beliefs, and self-concepts that contribute to their own plight. Characterized by female-centered households, an emphasis on gratification in the present rather than in the future and a lack of participation in social institutions.

Compensation • • Forbes magazine reported that Apple CEO Steven Jobs earned $646. 6 million in total compensation in 2006. In contrast, a U. S. Army General makes an annual salary of between $168, 000 and $204, 000.

Conflict Perspective • • Economic inequality results from bourgeoisie exploiting proletariat. Corporations and the wealthy buy political influence. Free-market reform policies benefit wealthy corporations and investors, but increase poverty. Wealthfare - Laws and policies that benefit corporations and the wealthy.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective • • Persons who are labeled “poor” are stigmatized as lazy; irresponsible; lacking in motivation, ability, and morals. Wealthy persons are viewed as capable, hard working, motivated, deserving of wealth.

What Do You Think? • • • The poor in the United States have low rates of voting and thus have minimal influence on elected government officials and the policies they advocate. Why do you think the poor are less likely to vote than those in higher income brackets? What strategies might be effective in increasing voter participation among the poor?

Economic Inequality in the U. S. • • • In 2005, the top 1% of U. S. households with the highest incomes received 21. 8% of all income, representing their largest share of national income since 1928. The top 10% of Americans collected 48. 5% of all reported income in 2005. The top 300, 000 Americans in 2005 collectively received as much income as the bottom 150 million Americans.

Wealth • • Total assets minus debts. Wealth includes the value of a home, investments, real estate, the value of cars, life insurance (cash value), stocks, bonds, mutual funds, trusts, checking and savings accounts, individual retirement accounts (IRAs), and valuable collectibles.

U. S. Poverty Rates by Age, 2005 Age Poverty Rate Under 18 17. 6 18 to 64 11. 1 65 and older 10. 1 All ages 12. 6

Feminization of Poverty • • Women are more likely than men to live below the poverty line—a phenomenon referred to as the feminization of poverty. The 2005 poverty rates for U. S. women and men were 14. 1% and 11. 1%, respectively Women are less likely to pursue advanced degrees and tend to have low paying jobs. However, even with the same level of education and occupational role, women earn much less than men.

Relationship Between Education and Poverty: 2005

U. S. Poverty Rates by Family Structure, 2005

U. S. Poverty Rates by Race and Hispanic Origin, 2005

Awareness of Poverty • • Students across the country participate in Hunger Banquets—an event created by Oxfam, an organization dedicated to eliminating hunger and poverty. Based on worldwide statistics, 55% of the attendees are randomly chosen to receive rice and water, 30% receive beans and rice, and 15% receive a full-course meal.

Natural Disasters and Poverty • Natural disasters, such as the December 2004 tsunami, are more devastating to the poor, who lack resources to cope with and recover from devastation.

Natural Disasters and Poverty • Many of the more than 1, 300 people who died in the wake of Hurricane Katrina were poor.

Educational Problems and Poverty • • • Children from poor families score lower on tests of cognitive skill. Poor children often go to inferior schools. Poor parents have fewer resources to provide educational experiences for their children.

Family Stress and Parenting Problems • • • Stresses associated with low income contribute to substance abuse, domestic violence, child abuse and neglect and divorce. Poor parents are more likely to leave children at home alone. Poor adolescent girls are more likely to have babies as teenagers or become young single mothers.

Characteristics of the Homeless in U. S. Cities • • 51% are single men 30% are families with children 16% are mentally ill 13% are employed 9% are veterans 17% are single women 2% are unaccompanied minors 26% are substance abusers

Couch-homeless • Individuals who do not have a home of their own and who stay at the home of family or friends.

The Homeless • More than 70, 000 people in the United States alone are homeless each night.

Intergenerational Poverty • Problems associated with poverty (health and educational problems) create a cycle of poverty from one generation to the next.

Public Assistance and Welfare Programs in the United States • • Many public assistance programs are meanstested, households are not eligible unless income and/or assets fall within guidelines. Government assistance programs for the poor include Supplemental Security Income, Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), food programs, housing assistance, medical care, educational assistance, child care, child support enforcement, and the earned income tax credit (EITC).

Public Assistance and Welfare Programs in the United States • • • Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) - Created in 1996, provides minimum monthly income to single parents and their children. Public housing - Provides federally subsidized housing owned and operated by local public housing authorities. Earned income tax credit (EITC) - A refundable tax credit based on a working family's income and number of children.

Housing • • Housing prices in Fairfax County, Virginia, grew 12 times as fast as household incomes. In response, Fairfax began offering housing subsidies to families earning $90, 000 a year.

Welfare Myths and Realities Myth: People receiving welfare lazy. Realities: • Unemployed welfare recipients experience barriers that prevent them from working: poor health, job scarcity, lack of transportation, lack of education, and/or the inability to pay for child care. • Over half of adults receiving TANF in 2005 participated in work.

Welfare Myths and Realities Myth: Most welfare mothers have many children. Reality: Mothers receiving welfare have no more children than mothers in the general population. • In year 2005 the average number of individuals in TANF families was 2. 4, including an average of 1. 8 children. The average size of households receiving food stamps in 2005 was 2. 3.

% Individuals Below Poverty Level in Households That Receive Assistance: 2005 Type of Assistance Percentage Total 67. 8 Receiving cash assistance 20. 9 Receiving food stamps 37. 9 Medicaid 54. 7 Public or subsidized housing 17. 3

Living-wage Laws • Require state or municipal contractors, recipients of public subsidies or tax breaks, or, in some cases, all businesses to pay employees wages significantly above minimum wage, enabling families to live above poverty line.

Chapter 7 Work and Unemployment

Chapter Outline • • • The Global Context: the Economy in the 21 st Century Sociological Theories of Work and the Economy Problems of Work and Unemployment Strategies for Action: Responses to Workers' Concerns Understanding Work and Unemployment

Unemployment • • Unemployment can lead some people to desperation. Timothy Bowers committed a bank robbery because he couldn’t find a job and wanted to be in prison until he was old enough to collect Social Security.

Economic Institution • • The structure and means by which a society produces, distributes, and consumes goods and services. The global economy is an interconnected network of economic activity that transcends national borders and spans the world.

Socialism and Capitalism • • Socialism • Economic system in which the means of producing goods and services are collectively owned. Capitalism • Economic system in which private individuals or groups invest capital to produce goods and services to sell for a profit in a competitive market.

Industrialization • • Industrialization altered the nature of work, Machines replaced hand tools; and steam, gasoline, and electric power replaced human or animal power. It led to the development of the assembly line and an increased division of labor as goods began to be mass produced. Instead of the family-centered economy characteristic of an agricultural society, people began to work outside the home for wages.

Post-industrialization • • The shift from an industrial economy dominated by manufacturing jobs to an economy dominated by service-oriented, information intensive occupations. Characterized by a highly educated workforce, automated and computerized production methods, increased government involvement in economic issues, and a higher standard of living.

Three Work Sectors • • • Primary - production of raw materials and food. Secondary - production of manufactured goods from raw materials. Tertiary - professional, managerial, technical-support, and service jobs.

Mc. Donaldization • Sociologist Ritzer uses the term to describe how the fast food industry applies to work: 1. Efficiency. Tasks are completed efficiently. 2. Calculability. Size, cost, and time are more important than quality. 3. Predictability. Products are standardized 4. Control through technology. Automation replaces human labor.

Free Trade Agreements • Pacts between countries that make it easier to trade goods across national boundaries. • Reduce foreign restrictions on exports • Reduce taxes on imported goods • Prevent technology from being copied through intellectual property rights.

Transnational Corporations • • Corporations that have their home base in one country and branches, or affiliates, in other countries. The top 100 economies around the world are transnational corporations rather than nations.

Transnational Corporations • • The combined yearly revenues of the largest corporations are greater than those of 182 nations, which are home to more than 4/5 of the world’s population. 3 to 6 transnational corporations control 85– 90% of wheat, corn, coffee, cotton, and tobacco exports, 90% of forest product exports, and 90% of iron ore exports.

Multinational Corporations • • Halliburton, the Pentagon’s largest private contractor in Iraq, has operations in more than 120 countries. In 2007, Halliburton announced it was moving its headquarters from Texas to Dubai—a taxfree zone that has lured about 1/4 of Fortune 500 companies.

Structural-Functionalist Perspective • • Economic institution provides basic necessities (food, shelter) common to all societies. After survival needs of a society are met, surplus wealth/materials may be allocated for social uses: military, education, recreation.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective • • One's work role is central part of one's identity (occupation is master status). Meanings and definitions influence behavior - in some countries children learn to regard working as a necessary responsibility rather than an abuse of human rights.

Forced Labor and Slavery • • Worldwide at least 12. 3 million people are victims of forced labor, any work performed under threat of punishment and undertaken involuntarily. Chattel slavery is an old form of slavery in which slaves are considered property that could be bought and sold.

Slavery • Slavery expert Kevin Bales explained that slavery is linked to three factors: 1. Rapid growth in population in the developing world. 2. Social and economic changes that have displaced rural dwellers to urban centers. 3. Government corruption that allows slavery to go unpunished, even though it is illegal in every country.

Forced Labor • Forced prison labor is a type of forced labor that is controlled by the state. Forced prison labor is particularly widespread in China.

Sweatshop Labor in the U. S. • Work environment characterized by: • less than minimum wage • excessively long hours • unsafe conditions • abusive treatment by employers • Lack of organizations aimed at negotiating better working conditions.

Sweatshop Labor • Sweatshop labor commonly occurs in the garment industry.

Reality of Sweatshops

Health and Safety Hazards in the U. S. Workplace • • • In 2005, 5, 702 U. S. workers died of fatal work-related injuries. Industries with the highest rates of fatal injuries include agriculture, mining and construction. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported 4. 4 million nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses in private industry in 2003.

Causes of Workplace Fatalities, 2005

Cumulative Trauma Disorders • Muscle, tendon, vascular, and nerve injuries that result from repeated or sustained actions or exertions of different body parts.

Job Stress • • • In a national sample of U. S. employees 26% felt “overworked” and 27% felt “overwhelmed” by how much work they had to do in the past month. Prolonged job stress can cause or contribute to physical and mental health problems, such as high blood pressure, ulcers, headaches, anxiety, and depression. 1/2 of the U. S. workforce has no paid sick leave and 1/4 has no paid vacation.

Job Burnout • Prolonged job stress that can cause or contribute to high blood pressure, ulcers, headaches, anxiety, depression, and other health problems.

Working on Vacation • This man, vacationing on the Greek island of Santorini, is among the one in five U. S. workers who works while on vacation.

Alienation • The condition that results when workers perform repetitive, monotonous work tasks, and they become estranged from their work, the product they create, other people, and themselves.

Work-Family Concerns • • • In nearly two-thirds of married couples with children younger than age 18 and in more than half of married couples with children younger than age 6, both parents are employed. 72% of women in female-headed single-parent households and 84% of men in male-headed single-parent households are employed. About 3. 3 million children younger than age 13 are left without adult supervision for a period of time each week.

U. S. Unemployment Rates: 2000 -2005

Unemployment • • The corporate practice of laying off large numbers of employees is called corporate downsizing. Relocation of jobs to other countries where products can be produced more cheaply is called job exportation.

Unemployment • • In 2000 the U. S. unemployment rate dipped to a 31 -year low of 4%, and in 2005 it was 5. 1%. Causes of unemployment: • Job exportation - Relocation of jobs to other countries where products can be produced more cheaply. • Automation - Replacement of human labor with machinery and equipment. • Increased global competition

Long-term Unemployment • The long-term unemployment rate refers to the share of the unemployed who have been out of work for 27 weeks or more. • In 2005, 1 in 5, of the unemployed in the United States had been out of work for six months or more.

Shares of Long-term Unemployment by Education

Underemployment • Underemployment includes unemployed workers as well as: • Those working part-time but who wish to work full-time. • Those who want to work but have been discouraged from searching by their lack of success. • Others who indicate that they want and are available to work and have looked for employment in the last 12 months.

Chapter 8 Problems in Education

Chapter Outline • • • The Global Context: Cross-cultural Variations In Education Sociological Theories of Education Who Succeeds? The Inequality of Educational Attainment Problems In The American Educational System Strategies For Action: Trends And Innovations In American Education Understanding Problems in Education

Cross-Cultural Variation In Education • • The United States has more than 100, 000 schools, 4. 4 million primary and secondary school teachers and college faculty, 5 million administrators and support staff, and 72. 1 million students. There are 781 million illiterate adults around the world, and 100 million children have little or no access to schools.

Youth Illiteracy Rates by Region and Sex, 2006

Structural-Functional Perspective • Education serves important functions: • Instruction • Socialization • Sorting individuals into various statuses • Custodial care

Multicultural Education • Education that includes all racial and ethnic groups in the school curriculum thereby promoting awareness and appreciation for cultural diversity.

Unemployment Rate of Individuals 25 or Older by Level of Education, 2007

Conflict Perspective • • • Educational institution solidifies class positions and allows the elite to control the masses. Quality education and educational opportunities are not equally distributed. Education provides indoctrination into the capitalist ideology. • Cultural imperialism - Indoctrination into the dominant culture of a society.

Conflict Perspective Education perpetuates racial inequality: • Gross inequalities between poor districts and middle-and upper-class districts. • Schools in poor districts have inadequate facilities, materials, and personnel.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective • Concerned with the individual and smallgroup issues in education: • Teacher-student interactions • Student self-esteem • Self-fulfilling prophecy - Occurs when people act in a manner consistent with the expectations of others.

The Self-fulfilling Prophecy Rosenthal and Jacobson experiment: • Five random elementary school students were labeled as having superior intelligence and ability. • Teachers expected them to do well and treated them in a way that encouraged better school performance.

Highest Level of Education Attained by Individuals 25 and Older, 2005

Head Start • Begun in 1965 to help preschool children from the most disadvantaged homes, Head Start provides an integrated program of health care, parental involvement, education, and social services for qualifying children.

U. S. Expenditures for Elementary and Secondary Education

Per Pupil Expenditure • As shown above, the per pupil expenditure varies dramatically by socioeconomic status of the school district. In 2005– 2006, the average per pupil expenditure was $8, 701.

Reasons for Lower Educational Achievement • • • Low-income parents are less likely to expect their children to go to college. Low-income parents are less likely to be involved with child’s education. Low-income parents are often themselves low academic achievers.

Race and Ethnicity • • • In 2004, 43% of public school students were racial or ethnic minorities. In comparison to whites, Hispanics and blacks are less likely to succeed in school at almost every level. By fourth grade, 41% of whites compared with 15% of Hispanics and 13% of blacks are reading at grade level; by eighth grade, 35% of whites, 12% of Hispanics, and 7% of blacks are performing at grade level in mathematics.

Educational Attainment by Race, Ethnicity, and Sex 1970 2005 4 or more years of high school Males Females White 54 55 85. 2 86. 2 Black 30. 1 32. 5 81. 1 81. 2 Hispanic 37. 9 34. 2 58 58. 9 Asian NA NA 90. 4 85. 1 Total 51. 9 52. 8 84. 9 85. 4

Educational Attainment by Race, Ethnicity, and Sex 1970 2003 4 years of college or more Males Females White 14. 4 8. 4 29. 4 26. 7 Black 4. 2 4. 6 16. 1 18. 8 Hispanic 7. 8 4. 3 11. 8 12. 1 Asian NA NA 54 46. 7 Total 13. 5 8. 1 28. 9 26. 5

Bilingual Education • The debate over bilingual education is likely to grow. By 2040 less than half of all school-age children will be non-Hispanic whites.

Total Immersion • An educational program, in which students, particularly elementary age students, receive literacy and communication instruction entirely in a foreign language, usually Spanish.

Integration Hypothesis • A theory that the only way to achieve quality education for all racial and ethnic groups is to desegregate the schools.

Composition of Schools Attended by the Average Student of Each Race, 2003– 04 Race in Each School White Asian Native American White 78 30 28 45 44 Black 9 53 12 12 7 Latino 9 13 55 20 11 Asian 3 3 5 22 3 Native American 1 1 35 Black Latino

Gender and Education • • • Worldwide women receive less education than men. An estimated 780 million adults in the world are illiterate, and two-thirds of them are women. According to a United Nations report, 115 million children worldwide are not in school and the majority of them are girls.

Gender and Education in the U. S. • • In 1833 Oberlin College in Ohio became the first college in the U. S. to admit women. • Female students at Oberlin were required to wash male students’ clothes, clean their rooms, and serve their meals and were forbidden to speak at public assemblies. Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 states that no person shall be discriminated against on the basis of sex in any educational program receiving federal funds.

School Dropouts • • The status dropout rate is the percentage of an age group that is not in school and has not earned a high school degree or its equivalent. • In 2004, the status dropout rate for 16 - to 24 year-olds was 10%, down from 15% in 1972. The event dropout rate is the percentage of students who drop out of high school each year. • Most researchers set this rate at between 30 and 50%.

Status Dropout Rates of 16 - to 24 -yearolds, by Race/ethnicity

Reasons for Dropping • In focus groups and a survey, respondents identified five reasons for dropping out of high school: 1. Classes were not interesting 2. Missed too many days and can’t catch up 3. Spent time with people who were not interested in school 4. Had too much freedom, not enough rules 5. Was failing in school

Violence in the Schools • • • in the 2004– 2005 school year there were 56 million students enrolled in primary and secondary schools. During the same time period there were 21 school-related homicides and 7 suicides—one homicide or suicide per 2 million students between the ages of 5 and 18. In 2004, there were 1. 4 million nonfatal crimes committed against 12 - to 18 -year-olds, with the most common, 62%, being theft.

Bullying • Inherent in a relationship between individuals, groups, or individuals and groups, bullying entails an imbalance of power that exists over a long period of time in which the more powerful intimidate or belittle others.

Cyberbullying • The use of electronic devices (e. g. websites, e-mail, instant messaging, text messaging) to send or post negative or hurtful messages or images about an individual or a group.

Condition of Our Schools • • • More and more school buildings and facilities are in need of repair. Mold, defective ventilation systems, faulty plumbing, and the like are not uncommon. Quality education is expected to continue in the classrooms despite deplorable conditions.

Recruitment and Retention of Quality Teachers • • With a national average turnover rate of 15. 7% in 2004, each year school systems open the new academic year without enough teachers. Research indicates that in an average school year, approximately 1, 000 teachers resign from their positions every day with more than 30% of new teachers leaving the profession within the first 5 years.

Recruiting Teachers • Across the nation, school system representatives attend teacher job fairs at colleges and other venues to recruit highly qualified teachers for their local school districts