Chapter 6 Learning Learning A process through which

Chapter 6 Learning

Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes Habituation – Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus

Learning – Can be Simple or Complex Mere exposure effect – Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed Behavioral learning – Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (e. g. classical and operant conditioning)

What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain? Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning Acquisition – Initial learning stage in classical conditioning; conditioned response becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus

Essentials of Classical Conditioning Prior to conditioning Neutral stimulus (bell) (Orientation to sound but no response) Unconditioned stimulus (meat) Unconditioned response (salivation) During Conditioning Neutral stimulus (bell) + Unconditioned stimulus (meat) Unconditioned response (salivation) After conditioning Conditioned stimulus (bell) Conditioned response (salivation)

Think of it as a formula! Before Conditioning: (UCS) meat = (UCR) salivation During Conditioning: (NS) bell + (UCS) meat = (UCR) salivation After Conditioning: (CS) bell = (CR) salivation

Classical Conditioning Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer Spontaneous recovery – Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay

Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus generalization involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS Stimulus discrimination involves responding to one stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar Confusing stimuli may cause experimental neurosis

Applications of Classical Conditioning Taste-aversion learning – Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness

How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the chance that our behavior will occur again

How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences

Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism B. F. Skinner believed that the most powerful influences on behavior are its consequences

Consequences are Powerful! Reinforcement • Strengthens • Increases • Encourages the likelihood that a behavior will happen again.

The Power of Reinforcement Positive (added) Reinforcement – An appetitive (liked) stimulus is added after a response/behavior which increases the probability of that response/behavior happening again. Negative (removed) Reinforcement – A response/behavior occurs in order to remove an aversive (disliked) stimulus, which increases the probability of that response/behavior happening again.

Consequences are Powerful! Punishment • Weakens • Decreases • Discourages the likelihood that a behavior will happen again.

The Power of Punishment Positive punishment – The application of an aversive (disliked) stimulus after a response/behavior, which decreases the response/behavior from happening again. Omission training (negative punishment) – The removal of an appetitive (liked) stimulus after a response/behavior, which decreases the response/behavior from happening again.

Four Kinds of Consequences STIMULUS + Present Remove Appetitive (like) Aversive (dislike) Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment $ Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work Omission Training Having your cell phone taken away for coming home late Getting speeding ticket leads to less speeding Negative Reinforcement Taking an aspirin to remove headache causes more aspirin use. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

So, is it Negative Reinforcement or Punishment? Negative Reinforcement (Aversive Stimulus)Threat of being grounded Response Consequence Come home on time Not grounded Punishment No Stimulus Stayed out Late Grounded Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Use and Abuse of Punishment Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed Punishment • • • Often triggers aggression May inhibit learning new and better responses Is often applied unequally When does punishment work?

Alternatives to Punishment Extinction Reinforcing preferred activities Premack principle Prompting and shaping

Other Types of Reinforcement Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism

Other Types of Reinforcement Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers)

Contingencies of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement)

Contingencies of Reinforcement Extinction – In operant conditioning, a process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement How does this differ from extinction in classical conditioning?

Schedules of Reinforcement/Punishment Ratio schedules : (Ratio = Behavior) (Root Beer) Provide reinforcement/punishment after a certain number/repetition of responses/behaviors occur. (Can’t get the root beer out of the vending machine until you put 4 quarters into the machine). Interval schedules : (Interval = Time) (Iced Tea) Provide reinforcement/punishment after a certain time interval lapses following the behavior/response. (It’s not iced tea until the tea-bag steeps for 5 minutes). Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Two Types of Schedules Fixed: Reinforcement is given in a set, predictable pattern. Variable: Reinforcement is given in a varied, unpredictable pattern.

Ratio Schedules Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Reinforcement/punishment appears after a certain set number of responses e. g. Buy 1 get 1 free. e. g. 3 strikes and you’re out! Variable Interval (VI) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Ratio Schedules Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Reinforcement/Punishment appears after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial e. g. slot machine payoffs e. g. Getting your cell phone taken away at school. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Interval Schedules Variable Ratio (VR) Reinforcement/punishment appears after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses Fixed Interval (FI) e. g. weekly or monthly paychecks Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Interval (VI) e. g. report cards Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Interval Schedules Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Reinforcement/punishment appears after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial e. g. fishing e. g. Tardy Sweeps; Variable Interval Sobriety Check Points (VI) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

What is the reinforcement schedule? 1. Speed traps on the highway 2. Selling a product door to door 3. Getting the clothes from the dryer once it buzzes 4. Doing 20 pushups to stay fit 5. Playing Bingo 6. Getting a strike in bowling (if you’re not a pro!) 7. Surfer waiting for the perfect wave to ride in 8. Wife getting a kiss from her husband for every touchdown his football team gets. 9. Husband getting a kiss from his wife at the beginning of every commercial break while he watches Dancing with the Stars with her. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone

How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions

How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? • Cognitive maps – A mental representation of physical space

Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior

Brain Mechanisms and Learning Long-term potentiation – Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; believed to be the neural basis of learning

Congratulations (Positive Reinforcement)! You made it to the end of the chapter (Fixed Ratio). Your hard work will pay off on the test on Wednesday (Fixed Interval). You will receive a good grade (positive reinforcement), which will shape the future behavior of studying (operant conditioning), and you will have fond memories of feeling good every time you hear the word “study” (classical conditioning). And, if you see other people succeeding in class, that will prompt you to do your work and study (observational learning). Now, go get yourself a treat for working so hard (Premack principal). End of Chapter 6