Chapter 6 Learning 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights

Chapter 6 Learning © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Learning • Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior that is based upon experience. • It is an area of psychology that seems simple to evaluate but is quite complex. • Both internal and external factors can influence and interfere with an organism’s learning. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Module 6. 1 • Behaviorism © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • Behaviorists insist that psychologists should study only observable, measurable behaviors, not mental processes. • There exists a wide range of views among researchers who call themselves behaviorists. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • Methodological behaviorism – Methodological behaviorists study only events that they can measure and observe. – They sometimes use those observations to make inferences about internal events. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • Methodological behaviorism – From observing how an animal behaves in the presence of certain stimuli, a methodological behaviorist infers the presence of an intervening variable. – This cannot be directly observed yet links a variety of procedures to a variety of possible responses. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • Methodological behaviorism – If a monkey shows its teeth or makes loud noises after placement of a stuffed animal or a larger monkey of the same species in its cage, and to a recording of growling noises of a predatory cat, the methodological behaviorist infers the presence of fear (intervening variable). © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • Methodological behaviorism – What measurements would you take to infer the presence of intervening variables such as: • Hunger? • Affection? • Anger? © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • Radical behaviorism – Radical behaviorists believe that internal states are caused by external events or genetics. • The ultimate cause of behavior is observable events, not internal states. • Most vague discussions of mental states are rephrased into descriptions of behavior. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • The rise of behaviorism – In the early 1900 s, the structuralists used the technique of introspection to study psychology. – They asked subjects to describe their own experiences in order to study thoughts and ideas. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • The rise of behaviorism – Behaviorists deemed it useless to ask people to describe their private experiences. – The accuracy of these reports was impossible to gauge. – Behaviorists insisted that psychology deal with observable and measurable events only. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • The rise of behaviorism – Jacques Loeb argued that all animal and most human behavior could be explained with stimulus-response psychology. • This explains behavior in terms of how each stimulus triggers a response. • Flinching from a blow and shading one’s eyes from strong light are stimulusresponse behaviors. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • The rise of behaviorism – More complex patterns of behavior are the sum of changes of speed and direction elicited by various stimuli. – Modern behaviorists believe that behavior is produced by stimuli and responses, plus the effects of natural physiological states (hunger, tiredness, etc. ) © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • The rise of behaviorism – The behaviorists carried on the tradition of asking questions about animal learning previously abandoned by comparative psychologists. – Early behaviorists thought it was possible to determine the basic laws of learning by studying how animals learn. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • The assumptions of behaviorism – Behaviorists are deterministic • We live a universe of cause-and-effect. Our behavior is part of that universe, so it must have identifiable causes. • If enough is known about an individual’s experiences, influences, and genetics, we can predict behavior. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • The assumptions of behaviorism – Mental explanations are ineffective. • Q. Why is she smiling? • A. She is smiling because she is happy. • Q How do you know she is happy? • A. We can tell she is happy because she is smiling. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • The assumptions of behaviorism – Circular reasoning arises when the presence of internal states is inferred based on behavior. – The influence of this perspective can be seen in the American legal system. Witnesses are discouraged from inferences about what they saw; they are encouraged to describe appearance and behavior. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • The assumptions of behaviorism – The environment predominates. • The strongest influence on behavior is outcome. • The environment selects and perpetuates successful behaviors, as evolution selects successful animals. • Behaviorists neither deny nor emphasize heredity. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Behaviorism • People dismiss behaviorism. • They reject the notion that thoughts, beliefs and emotions are the effect and not the cause of behavior. • Behaviorists argue that past outcomes of behaviors cause thoughts, beliefs and emotions. • Can you support the idea that thoughts, beliefs and emotions exist independently of your experiences? © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Module 6. 2 • Classical Conditioning © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Pavlov and Classical Conditioning • Ivan Pavlov was a physiologist who won a Nobel Prize for his research on digestion. • His original description of classical conditioning was a by-product of this research. He did not set out to discover classical conditioning. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Pavlov noticed that the dogs he used in research salivated upon the sight of the lab workers who fed them. – He concluded that this reflex was “psychological” - based on the dog’s previous experiences. – Further testing demonstrated that the sight of food produced the same effect as giving the same amount of food to the dog. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

© 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Based on tentative acceptance of the salivation reflex, Pavlov described this response as a “conditional reflex. ” • The term was mistranslated into English as conditioned reflex. • This mistake created the terminology now used to describe classical conditioning. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Pavlov started with the unconditioned reflex of salivation to food. He hypothesized the presence of an automatic connection. – The dogs had an unconditioned reflex of secretion of digestive juices to food. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • A buzzer is a neutral stimulus. It elicits attention to the sound, but no automatic connection. – The dogs lifted their ears and looked around when the buzzer sounded, but did not salivate. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Pavlov hypothesized that animals transfer a response from one stimulus to another – a new learned connection. – If a buzzer always preceded the food, the buzzer would begin to elicit the reflex of salivation. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • After a few pairings of the buzzer with the food, the dogs salivates as soon as the buzzer sounded. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Terminology – Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) An event that consistently and automatically elicits an unconditioned response. – Unconditioned Response (UCR) An action that the unconditioned stimulus automatically elicits. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Terminology – Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Formerly the neutral stimulus, now paired with the unconditioned stimulus, elicits the same response. That response depends on consistent pairing with the UCR. – Conditioned Response (CR) The response elicited by the conditioned stimulus due to training. Usually it resembles the UCR. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Factors that enhance conditioning – Conditioning is quicker when the conditioned (neutral) stimulus is unfamiliar. If you are habituated to (used to) the neutral stimulus, it will take longer to form a connection. – Conditioning is facilitated when people are made aware of the connection between the CS and the UCS. Having been informed of the conditioning procedure they are conditioned faster. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check A puff of air is blown into a rabbit’s eye just after a musical tone is played. After several repetitions of this procedure, the rabbit closes its eye when the musical tone is played. What are the: Air puff – UCS – UCR Closing the eye – CS Musical tone – And CR? Closing the eye to the tone © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check • A TV commercial for Mega Burger shows a delicious cheeseburger. A classic rock song is played during the commercial. You see the commercial several times, and now when the song is playing on the radio, you get hungry. What are the: – UCS Cheeseburger – UCR Hunger – CS Rock song – And CR? Hunger at sound of song © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check • When the training starts, the CS elicits no response and the UCS elicits ____. the UCR _____ © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check • After the training, the CS elicits ____ the CR and the UCS elicits ____. the UCR © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • The processes of classical conditioning – The process that establishes a conditioned response is acquisition. – To extinguish a classically conditioned response, the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. This is referred to as extinction. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • The processes of classical conditioning – A rabbit is conditioned to blink its eye. Repeated presentation of a musical tone is followed by a puff of air directly blown in its eye. After a few repetitions, the rabbit blinks when the tone sounds. (Acquisition) – The tone is repeatedly played without the air puff. Gradually, the rabbit stops blinking. (Extinction) © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • The processes of classical conditioning – Extinction does not erase the association between the CS and the UCS. – If the puff of air is presented again to the rabbit without warning, it blinks the next time the tone is played. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • The processes of classical conditioning – The temporary return of an extinguished response is spontaneous recovery. – The rabbit acquires the response. The response is then extinguished through the repeated presentation of the tone with no air puff. Hours after the experiment, the rabbit hears a musical tone. It blinks. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

© 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

© 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check To deal with your conditioned response to the song from the Mega Burger commercial, what steps would you take to produce extinction? What steps would you take to produce spontaneous recovery? To produce extinction, play the song repeatedly with no image of the cheeseburger. To produce spontaneous recovery, watch the commercial once a few days after the extinction procedure has been completed. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • The processes of classical conditioning – Stimulus generalization is the extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli. – Baby Hannah is conditioned to smile and laugh at the title screen with dark background and white writing that precedes a funny song and cartoon on her “Baby Genius” DVD. She also smiles and giggles at the FBI Warning screen on movie DVDs. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

© 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • The process of classical conditioning – Discrimination is the development of different responses to two stimuli because they produce two different outcomes. – Gradually Hannah stops laughing at the FBI Warning screen because the song and cartoon do not follow it. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Explanations of classical conditioning – The process of classical conditioning is more complex than it might seem. – The association is not merely a transfer of response from one stimulus to the other. The conditioned stimulus is a signal to the organism. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Explanations of classical conditioning – Temporal contiguity aids the process of conditioning. The sooner the UCS occurs after the presentation of the CS, the faster the CR is acquired. – The CR is acquired more quickly when the CS precedes the UCS. This is forward conditioning. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

© 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Explanations of classical conditioning – In trace conditioning, the CS stops before the UCS is presented. This is a relatively ineffective method. – Backward conditioning (UCS follows by the CS) rarely produces a response. – The phenomenon of blocking shows that it’s difficult to condition the same response to more than one stimulus. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Explanations of classical conditioning – When rats experience an electric shock (a UCS) they jump and shriek. – After being conditioned to a buzzer preceding the shock (a CS) they freeze in place at its sound, a typical alarm response in rats. – The CS prepares the animal for a UCS. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Conditioning, contiguity and contingency – A conditioned response develops only if there is predictability or contingency. – The UCS is more likely to occur after the CS. – The learner discovers the event that predicts the outcome. It is unclear whether any actual complex thinking results from this process. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Understanding Addiction © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Classical Conditioning • Classical conditioning is thought by those unfamiliar with psychology to simple, mechanical learning. • It is in fact a complex form of learning that requires processing of information by the learner. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Module 6. 3 • Operant Conditioning © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Thorndike and Operant Conditioning • In 1911 Edward Thorndike developed a simple, behaviorist explanation of learning. • He used a learning curve, a graph of the changes in behavior that occur over successive trials of an experiment, to record how quickly cats learned to escape from a maze. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

© 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

© 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Thorndike and Operant Conditioning • The cats’ learning curve indicated a slow and consistent progress towards the solution. • But cats would learn more quickly if the response selected produced an immediate escape. • The cats would try many different behaviors and learn to select the one that produced escape. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Thorndike and Operant Conditioning • Overall it appeared to Thorndike that the cats were not “understanding” the connections between the solution and the escape. There was no sudden increase in the learning curve to support that assumption. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

© 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Thorndike and Operant Conditioning • Thorndike observed that the escape from the box acted as a reinforcement for the behavior that led to it. – A reinforcement is an event that increases the future probability of the most recent response. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect • “Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected to the situation, so that, when it (the situation) recurs, they will be more likely to recur. ” © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Operant Conditioning • The type of learning that Thorndike studies has come to be known as operant or instrumental conditioning. – The process of changing behavior by following a response with a reinforcement. – The subject’s behavior determines and is affected by a specific outcome. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Operant Conditioning • Operant conditioning differs from classical in that the former, the subject’s behavior affects the outcome. • Classical conditioning influences visceral, reflexive, and involuntary responses, while operant conditioning applies to skeletal, somatic, and voluntary responses. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Processes of Operant Conditioning • In operant conditioning, extinction occurs if responses stop producing reinforcements. – A child for whom you are babysitting whines until you give him a cookie. If you stop giving the child cookies, he will eventually stop whining. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Processes of Operant Conditioning • Stimulus generalization occurs when a new stimulus is similar to the original reinforced stimulus. The more similar the new stimulus is to the old, the more strongly the subject will respond. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Processes of Operant Conditioning The child for whom you are babysitting falls and scrapes his knee. He is crying inconsolably. You give him a cookie. He continues to whine and cry on and off all afternoon, stopping for brief periods after you give him a cookie. The stimulus of his whining has generalized to crying and whining. You are responding to both. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Processes of Operant Conditioning • Discrimination occurs when someone is reinforced for responding to one stimulus but not another. The individual will respond more vigorously to one than to the other. – If you stop giving the child cookies when he cries but continue when he whines, he will whine much more often than he will cry. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Processes of Operant Conditioning • A stimulus that indicates which response is appropriate or inappropriate is called a discriminative stimulus. – The child for whom you baby-sit does not whine for cookies when his mother is present, because she never gives in to his whining. As soon as she leaves, he begins whining for a cookie. The presence of his mother has become a discriminative stimulus. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Phenomena of Operant Conditioning • A stimulus’ power to encourage some responses and discourage others is known as stimulus control. – When his mother is present, the child for whom you baby-sit asks her politely for juice and crackers. When his mother is absent, he whines for cookies. The presence or absence of one stimulus after another signals to him which behaviors will or will not be reinforced. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Processes of Operant Conditioning • Thorndike noted that some responses are more easily learned than others. The cats learned to escape from the mazes relatively quickly, but learned to scratch themselves on cue slowly and inconsistently. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

B. F. Skinner and the Shaping of Behavior • B. F. Skinner is the most influential of all radical behaviorists. • He demonstrated many potential applications of operant conditioning. • He was a firm believer in parsimony, seeking simple explanations in terms of reinforcement histories, and avoiding the inference of complex mental processes. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Shaping Behavior • Shaping establishes new responses by reinforcing successive approximations to it. • Skinner used an “operant chamber” (referred to as a “Skinner box” by others) into which he put the animal he wished to train by shaping. • Gradually the animal was reinforced for behaviors that approached the target activity until it fully performed the behavior. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Shaping Behavior • To make a pigeon turn in a complete clockwise circle, Skinner would first reinforce the pigeon with food for just turning a few degrees to the right. When the pigeon began turning to the right regularly, he would cease reinforcing until the pigeon turned a few more degrees in that direction. When that behavior was established, he’d wait until the pigeon turned further to the right, and reinforce that movement, until finally the pigeon turned in a complete circle. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Chaining Behavior • This an operant conditioning method in which behaviors are reinforced by opportunities to engage in the next behavior – The animal learns the final behavior, and then the next to last, and so on, until the beginning of the sequence is reached. – Eating is an example of a chained behavior in humans. We first learn to eat with utensils, and gradually acquire the preceding activities of getting and preparing food. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Increasing and Decreasing the Frequency of Responses • A reinforcement is an event that increases the probability that a response will be repeated. • A punishment is an event that decreases the probability of a response. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Reinforcement and Punishment • A reinforcement is either the presentation of a desirable item such as money or food, or the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, such as verbal nagging or physical pain. • A punishment is the removal of a desirable condition such as driving privileges or the presentation of an unpleasant condition such as physical pain. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Reinforcement and Punishment • Most people respond better to both immediate reinforcement and immediate punishment. • Most punishments are given in American society for behaviors that are immediately reinforcing. The punishments may or may not occur. • The threat of punishment under these conditions is not an effective tool for changing behavior. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Reinforcement and Punishment • Punishment tends to be ineffective except for temporarily suppressing undesirable behavior. • Mild, logical, and consistent punishment can be informative and helpful. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check Most people who speed are not put off this infraction by the threat of a speeding ticket and fine. Based on what you have learned about the efficacy of punishment as a training method, why do you think this is? Because threat of the punishment is highly uncertain – very few people get pulled over relative to the number who speed – and the behavior is very immediately gratifying. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Reinforcements and Punishments • The presentation of an event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of an event is called positive reinforcement. – A parent praises a child for excellent performance on a test. – A waiter receives an extra large tip for good service. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Reinforcements and Punishments • Punishment is referred to as passive avoidance learning because in response to punishment an individual learns to avoid the outcome by being passive. – A child learns to avoid the punishment of being sent to his room for the evening by not teasing his little sister. – A woman avoids distress by not calling her sister who always says cruel things whenever they talk. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Reinforcements and Punishments • Omission training occurs when the lack of a response produces reinforcement. Producing the response also leads to a lack of reinforcement. – This is sometimes referred to as negative punishment. • Parents tell a teenager that if she breaks curfew again, she will lose her driving privileges for a month. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Reinforcements and Punishments • Escape learning or active avoidance learning occurs if the responses lead to an escape from or an avoidance of something painful. – This is sometimes referred to as negative reinforcement. • A teenager cleans his room to avoid listening to any more of his dad’s nagging. • A babysitter gives a cookie to a child to stop his whining. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check • What type of learning has occurred? Your little brother locks you in his room and plays the Barney theme song at full volume until you tell him what Mom and Dad are giving him for his birthday. Escape learning (or negative reinforcement) © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check • What type of learning has occurred? You win a $1, 000. 00 scholarship for your high GPA. Positive reinforcement © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check • What type of learning has occurred? • You put on your sunglasses because the bright sun is making your eyes hurt. Escape learning (or negative reinforcement) © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check • What type of learning has occurred? • Your professor deducts points from your final grade if you are late to class. Negative punishment (omission training) © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check • What type of learning has occurred? • You send flowers to your sweetheart because you always get extra affection and compliments after you do so. Positive reinforcement © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check • What type of learning has occurred? • You really want to pass this class so you never have to sit through it again. Avoidance learning (or negative reinforcement) © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

What Constitutes Reinforcement? • A reinforcer increases the likelihood of the preceding response. – This can be confusing because it leads to a circular explanation. – It can also be confusing because although generally a reinforcer is a pleasant event, it doesn’t have to be. – What constitutes a “pleasant event” can be hard to define or vary from person to person. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

What Constitutes Reinforcement? • Many reinforcers satisfy biological needs, such as hunger. • Addictive behaviors don’t seem to give much pleasure to the addict (although they may be negatively reinforcing - done to avoid the unpleasant condition of not having access to the drug. ) © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

What Constitutes Reinforcement? • Some reinforcers don’t satisfy any immediate need, but represent a future opportunity to have greater access to resources (such as a good grade – you can’t eat it, but getting many of them may raise your chances of having more to eat later in your life. ) © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

What Constitutes Reinforcement? • The Premack Principle – The Premack Principle states that the opportunity to engage in a preferred behavior will be a reinforcer for any less preferred behavior. • A person who prefers going to the movies to going to museums can be reinforced for extra trips to the museum with free movie passes. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

What Constitutes Reinforcement? • The disequilibrium principle – The disequilibrium principle states that each person has a preferred pattern of dividing time between various activities. If one is unable to engage in that pattern a return to it will be reinforcing. • A person who must work overtime for the next three weekends makes an extra effort to finish up the assigned work to return to his preferred activity of playing golf. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check Using the disequilibrium principle and positive reinforcement, how would you encourage more studying in a child who is getting poor grades due to insufficient studying? Determine the child’s preferred after school activity and tie set amounts of time spent doing that activity to the completion of a minimum number of minutes of hours studying. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

What Constitutes Reinforcement? • Unconditioned reinforcers meet primary, biological needs and are found to be reinforcing for almost everyone. Food and drink are unconditioned reinforcers. • Conditioned reinforcers are effective because they have become associated with unconditioned reinforcers. Money and grades are conditioned reinforcers. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Learning What Leads to What • Thorndike had a strictly mechanical view of reinforcement. An animal that receives reinforcement for a behavior will perform it more frequently. No learning takes place without reinforcement, and understanding of the reason for the behaviors is not necessary. – A rat learns to run a maze because food is present at the end of the alleys that lead to the exit from the maze. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Learning What Leads to What • In contrast, the idea of latent learning suggests that learning may occur in animals without being demonstrated until the reward is presented. – A rat is left to explore and sniff around in a maze. When presented with the possibility of a reward of food, he runs the maze as fast as the rat that was painstakingly trained with rewards to run it. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Schedules of Reinforcement • Schedules of reinforcement are rules of for delivery of reinforcement – Used to maintain learned behaviors that might be extinguished if reinforcement ceased. – Continuous reinforcement schedules provide reinforcement every time a response occurs. – However, outside of the laboratory, reinforcement rarely follows every occurrence of a desired behavior. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Schedules of Reinforcement • Most schedules of reinforcement are intermittent. Some responses are reinforced and others are not. • One of the two categories of intermittent reinforcement is ratio - delivery of reinforcement depends on the number of responses given. • The other category of intermittent reinforcement is interval - delivery of reinforcement depends on the amount of time since the last reinforcement. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Schedules of Reinforcement • A fixed-ratio schedule provides reinforcement only after a certain (“fixed”) number of correct responses have been made. A laboratory rat being reinforced for hitting a lever after every 5 hits is being reinforced on an FR-5 schedule. – The local gourmet coffee shop gives you a card that says if you buy 9 coffee drinks you will get the 10 th beverage for free. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Schedules of Reinforcement • A variable-ratio schedule provides reinforcement after a variable number of correct responses, usually working out to an average in the long run. A baseball player who has a. 333 batting average is reinforcing fans with hits on a VR-3 schedule. – Slot machines, like all gambling, provide a particularly compelling form of variable ratio reinforcement to the player. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Schedules of Reinforcement • A fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement for the first response made after a specific time interval. A person who is paid every two weeks is reinforced for work on a fixed interval schedule. – You receive your local newspaper at the same time every day. You probably have a good idea of when to start checking for it. This is a fixed interval schedule. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Schedules of Reinforcement • A variable-interval schedule provides reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed. – If your newspaper delivery person is very inconsistent about delivery times, showing up one day at 5: 00 AM, the next day at 7: 30 AM, etc. , your paper is delivered on a variable interval schedule. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Schedules of Reinforcement • extinction of responses tends to take longer when an individual has been on an intermittent schedule rather than a continuous schedule. • One explanation for this difference is that the lack of reinforcement does not signify the complete cessation of reinforcements to the individual who’s been on an intermittent schedule. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check • Name the reinforcement schedule • You receive e-mail from your friend who is studying in France this semester at about an average of 1 note every 4 days. Variable interval © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Concept Check • Name the reinforcement schedule • Your very reliable oven bakes a batch of cookies in 10 minutes. Fixed interval © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Applications of Operant Conditioning • A wide variety of applications exists for the techniques of operant conditioning including: – Animal training for performance, military, and helper animals. – Persuasion in political and commercial enterprises. – Psychological treatment, through the use of applied behavior analysis or behavior modification. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Applications of Operant Conditioning • In behavior modification, the clinician determines which reinforcers sustain an undesirable or unwanted behavior. • The clinician tries to change the behavior by reducing the opportunities for reinforcement of the unwanted behavior and providing reinforcers for a more acceptable behavior. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Operant Conditioning • Some people are disturbed by the idea that positive reinforcement might influence behavior. • You wouldn’t work hard in a course or a job if your performance didn’t matter and all the grades or bonuses were given without regard to quality. • Operant conditioning provides a useful and powerful way to improve behavior. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Module 6. 4 • Other Kinds of Learning © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Conditioned Taste Aversions • If learning occurs reliably after just one trial, it is hard to know if the learning was a result of classical conditioning or operant conditioning – One kind of learning that occurs after a single trial is an association between eating something and getting sick. – This is conditioned taste aversion. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Conditioned Taste Aversions – Many species appear to have a built-in predisposition to associate illness with food that was consumed, even if some time has elapsed between the consumption of the substance and the onset of the illness. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Birdsong Learning • The beautiful songs of male birds may be delightful to our ears, but they are serious business for the bird – The songs are crucial for soliciting attracting a suitable mate. – They are also a warning to potential invaders of the singer’s territory. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Birdsong Learning • Some species of songbird are especially dependent on the process of hearing live songs of older males in order to develop a normal song. • There is a sensitive period early in the bird’s life during which the song is learned most readily. • The young bird also learns better from a live male than from a tape recording, and will not learn the songs of other species. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Birdsong Learning • Birdsong learning resembles human language learning in some ways. – It requires a social context, has an optimal period for learning early in life, starts with a kind of babbling, and tends to deteriorate if the individual becomes deaf later in life. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Birdsong Learning • It differs from classical conditioning in that the song the baby male bird learns from is not an unconditioned stimulus – it elicits no response. • It differs from operant conditioning in that during the sensitive period there is no apparent reinforcement of the learning. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Social Learning • The social-learning approach, defined by Albert Bandura, states that we learn many behaviors before we attempt them for the first time. – Much learning, especially in humans, results from observing the behaviors of others and from imagining the consequences of our own. – Two of the chief components of social learning are modeling and imitation. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Social Learning • Bandura and his assistants did experiments in which children watched films in which adults either did or did not attack an inflated “Bobo” doll. – Children who saw the aggressive versions of the films were more likely to repeat those actions when left alone with a similar toy. – The implication was that the children were imitating the aggressive behavior they had just seen. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Social Learning • There has been great interest in the work of Bandura because of the controversy over effects of violence in TV programs and movies. • It is unclear if direct relationship exists between televised/cinematic violence and violent behavior. People vary widely in susceptibility to the influence of violent imagery. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment • Another aspect of the social learning approach is the idea that we are more likely to imitate behaviors of others we’ve seen rewarded and less likely to imitate behaviors that create unpleasant results for others. • This substitution of others’ experiences for one’s own is vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment • The effectiveness of vicarious reinforcement and punishment resembles that of direct reinforcement and punishment. • Vicarious reinforcement appears to be more effective than vicarious punishment in creating behavioral change. • Some people may be more able to avoid identifying with others whose behaviors brought about painful or unpleasant consequences. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Self-Efficacy in Social Learning • We imitate people we admire. • Advertisers routinely use endorsements from celebrities and sports figures, and images of the happy, healthy, affluent people that most of us would like to be. • We do not model ourselves after every admirable figure. We imitate others only when we have a sense of self-efficacy, and perceive ourselves as also being able to perform the task successfully. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Learning • Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, conditioned taste aversions, and social learning represent a diverse set of influences on human behavior. • Your everyday behavior is in large part a product of the combined effects of these processes. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.