Chapter 6 FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction

Chapter 6 FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -1

Introduction Toxicologists: • detect and identify drugs and poisons in body fluids, tissues, and organs • identify a drug overdose or monitor the intake of drugs • work in crime laboratories, medical examiners’ offices, hospital laboratories and health facilities • measure the amount of alcohol or other abused drugs in the body for violations of criminal law FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -2

Role of Toxicologist • The toxicologist uses general screening procedures with the hope of narrowing thousands of possibilities to one, if the victim does not present any symptoms. • A drug analyst may have gram or milligram quantities to work with, but the toxicologist must work with nanogram or microgram amounts ➡ Due to drugs being distributed throughout the body FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -3

Role of Toxicologist • Must be prepared to assess the toxicity of the drug or poison. • Toxicity - The degree to which a substance (a toxin or poison) can harm humans or animals. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -4

Collection and Preservation of Toxicological Evidence • In the deceased, the following may be collected: q blood qorgan tissue qvitreous humor (liquid in the eye) qgastric contents FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -5

Collection of Toxicological Evidence • In living victims blood and urine are collected. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -6

Techniques Used in Toxicology • Toxicologists must detect, isolate and identify a toxic substance. • Drug extraction is based on the acidity and basicity of drugs. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -7

Techniques Used in Toxicology Acids and Bases • An acid a compound that donates H+ ion to another compound - Example: acetic acid CH 3 COO-H • A base is a compound capable of accepting a hydrogen ion - Example: NH 3 FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -8

FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -9

Techniques Used in Toxicology • Water is neutral with a p. H of 7 • A drug can be recovered by changing the p. H of water q Acidic drugs are extracted from an acidified water solution (p. H < 7) q Basic drugs are extracted from a basic water solution (p. H > 7) FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -10

Over-the-Counter Drugs • Can cause accidental poisoning or even death • OTC drugs include: - alcohol - aspirin - antacids - other pain relievers - nicotine FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -11

OTC Drugs • Drugs can be detected in overdosed victims by acidified and basic solutions. q. A color change may be observed q. Carbon dioxide gas may also be produced FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -12

Alcohol Statistics • Ethyl alcohol is the most heavily abused drug in Western countries. • 40% of all traffic deaths in the US, are alcohol related. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -13

Toxicology of Alcohol • Alcohol effects the central nervous system, particularly the functions of the brain. • The analysis of alcohol demonstrates: q A second objective of forensic toxicology—to determine influence of drugs on human behavior. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -14

Metabolism of Alcohol • Metabolism – the transformation of a chemical to other chemicals to aid in its elimination from the body • Metabolism consists of three steps: q Absorption q Distribution q Elimination FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -15

Metabolism of Alcohol • Alcohol appears in the blood within minutes after it has been taken by mouth • Slowly increases in concentration while it is being absorbed from the stomach and the small intestine into the bloodstream. • Absorption – passage of alcohol across the wall of the stomach and small intestine into the bloodstream FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -16

Question • Name four factors that determine the rate at which alcohol is absorbed into the bloodstream. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -17

FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -18

Metabolism of Alcohol • Factors such as time taken to consume the drink, the alcohol content, the amount consumed, and food present in the stomach determine the rate at which alcohol is absorbed. • As the alcohol is circulated by the bloodstream, the body begins to eliminate it. • Alcohol is eliminated by two mechanisms - oxidation - excretion FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -19

Metabolism of Alcohol • Oxidation – the combination of oxygen with other substances to produce new products • Excretion – elimination of alcohol from the body in an unchanged state; alcohol is normally excreted in breath, urine and perspiration. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -20

Alcohol Levels • Is measured as the quantity of alcohol present in the blood (BAC) or the alcohol content in the breath • The amount of alcohol exhaled in the breath is directly proportional to the alcohol concentration in the blood https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=z. Xj. ANz 9 r 5 F 0 FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -21

BAC: Blood Alcohol Content • Expressed as percent weight per volume of blood • Legal limit in all states is 0. 08 percent • The average elimination or “burnoff” rate of alcohol is about 0. 015 percent w/v per hour Parameters influencing BAC: • Body weight • Alcohol content • Number of beverages consumed • Time since consumption FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL 22 © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -22

BAC Calculation BAC = Noz x % alcohol x 0. 075 - ( 0. 015 x hr drinking) body weight Video Example FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL 23 © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -23

FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -24

Metabolism of Alcohol FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -25

FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -26

Alcohol & Circulatory System • Humans have a closed circulatory system consisting of a heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -27

Alcohol & Circulatory System • Alcohol is absorbed from the stomach and small intestines into the blood stream. • Alcohol is carried to the liver where the process of its destruction starts. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -28

Alcohol & Circulatory System • Blood, carrying alcohol, moves to the heart and is pumped to the lungs. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -29

Alcohol & Circulatory System • In the lungs, CO 2 and alcohol leave the blood and O 2 enters the blood in the air sacs known as alveoli. • Then CO 2 and alcohol are exhaled during breathing. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -30

Testing for Intoxication FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -31

1. Breath Testers – Light Absorption Device • Breath testers are designed to analyze alveolar breath. • The captured breath is exposed to infrared light. • The infrared light source allows the instrument to measure the (BAC) in the captured breath. • Other breath testing devices use fuel cells. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v= rv. Vzlg 26 b. CM PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -32

2. Field Testing • Police officers use field sobriety tests to: q estimate a motorist’s degree of physical impairment by alcohol FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -33

Field Testing Three major field tests: 1. Horizontal gaze nystagmus test – (involuntary jerking of the eye) 2. Walk and turn 3. One-leg stand • All considered reliable and effective psychophysical tests. • Video 1 • Video 2 • Video 3 FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -34

FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -35

Field Testing • A portable, handheld, roadside breath tester can be used to determine a preliminary BAC. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -36

3. Collection of Blood • A confirmation blood test is always performed • Blood must always be drawn under controlled conditions by qualified personnel. • A nonalcoholic disinfectant must be applied before the suspect is stuck with a sterile needle. • The blood is collected in a glass tube that contains anticoagulant/preservative and is refrigerated. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -37

Collection and Preservation of Blood Anticoagulant - a substance that prevents clotting of blood Preservative – stops the growth of microorganisms in blood Blood clot FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -38

3. The Analysis of Blood for Alcohol • A confirmation blood test is always performed • 3. Gas chromatography is used to determine blood alcohol levels. • The resultant alcohol peak is compared to ones obtained with known blood-alcohol standards • The alcohol level can be calculated. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -39

FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -40

Techniques Used in Toxicology • Once a drug has been extracted, a toxicologist will take a 2 -step approach: 1. Screening Test - A large number of drug samples can be analyzed in a short time 2. Confirmation Test - Results from screening test are verified with confirmation tests FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -41

Techniques used in Toxicology 1. Screening Tests (3 widely used) q Thin-layer chromatography q Gas chromatography q Immunoassay Ø Based on specific drug antibody reactions FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -42

2. Confirmation Tests • Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (test of choice) • Infrared Spectrophotometry FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -43

FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -44

FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -45

Amy Winehouse FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -46

Question Using i. Pad, search for symptoms of alcohol poisoning, and what causes death? FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -47

Collecting Samples for Drug Tests 1. Blood Tests 2. Urine Tests 3. Hair Testing • Drugs become permanently entrapped in hair’s hardening protein structure • As hair grows, the drug’s location on hair shaft becomes a time marker for drug intake • Drug use can be dated back to a period of weeks, months, or even years, depending on hair’s length FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -48

Detecting Nondrug Poisons FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -49

Famous Poisons Arsenic has been called “The King of Poisons”, for its discreetness and potency – it was virtually undetectable, so it was very often used either as a murder weapon or as a mystery story element. But that’s until the Marsh test came and signaled the presence of this poison in water, food and the like. However, this king of poisons has taken many famous lives: Napoleon Bonaparte and Simon Bolivar to name a few. On another note, arsenic, like belladonna, was used by the Victorians for cosmetic reasons. A couple of drops of the stuff made a woman’s complexion white and pale. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -50

Famous Poisons Cyanide seems to be extremely popular (spies use cyanide pills to kill themselves when caught) and there are plenty of reasons for this. Firstly, it is found in a great variety of substances like almonds, apple seeds, apricot kernel, tobacco smoke, insecticides, and pesticides. Murder in this case can be blamed on a household accident, such as ingestion of pesticide – a fatal dose of cyanide for humans is 1. 5 mg per kilogram of body weight. Secondly, it’s a rapid killer: depending on the dose, death occurs within 1 to 15 minutes. Hydrogen cyanide gas was used by Nazi Germany for mass murders in gas chambers during the Holocaust. 6 -51 FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

What is the World’s Deadliest Snake? The deadliest snake is a Belcher's Sea-snake. It takes only 0. 02 milligrams of venom to kill a person. They usually injects around 35 milligrams and that can kill around 15, 000 people with one bite. Death can happen within 2 minutes. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -52

Where are more people killed by Snakes? An estimated 12, 000 people die annually from Cobra bites in India. It is possible that under the right conditions a person could die from a cobra bite in 30 minutes FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -53

• http: //modernsurvivalblog. com/survivalskills/the-4 -deadly-poisonous-snakes-inamerica/ FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -54

Carbon Monoxide • Carbon monoxide poisoning can happen when fires, stoves, heaters or ovens are used in rooms, huts which do not have proper ventilation to let the gas out. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -55

Incidence • CO is leading cause of poisoning deaths in industrialized countries. • CO may be responsible for half of all poisonings worldwide. • ~5, 000– 6, 000 people die annually in the United States as a result of CO poisoning. • ~40, 000– 50, 000 emergency department visits annually result from CO poisoning. Source: Hampson NB. Trends in the incidence of carbon monoxide poisoning in the United States. Am J PRENTICE HALL FORENSIC SCIENCE Emerg Med. 2005; 23: 838 -841 © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. An Introduction By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -56

What Is Carbon Monoxide? • CO is a compound of Carbon and Oxygen • One atom carbon to one atom oxygen • • FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein Colorless Odorless Tasteless POISONOUS Gas PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -57

Where Does It Come From? • CO is Produced by the Incomplete Combustion of Various Fuels, • Including: Coal Wood Oil Natural Gas Charcoal Kerosene Propane FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein Note production of CO from the fire on right PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -58

Common Causes of Incomplete Combustion • • • FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein Smoldering Fires Burning Wet Wood Burning Green Wood Lack of O 2 During Combustion Malfunctioning Appliances Malfunctioning Exhaust Systems PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -59

Common Sources of Carbon Monoxide Pollution WATER HEATERS & FURNACES FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein FIREPLACES PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -60

Sources (Cont. ) VEHICLE EXHAUST FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein SMOKING INDOORS PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -61

The Hidden Dangers of CO • Carbon Monoxide Poisoning is the Most Common Exposure Poisoning in the United States • Carbon Monoxide is Not Easily Recognized Because the Signs and Symptoms Are Similar to Those of Other Illness • Causes Sudden Illness and Death FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -62

Carbon Monoxide in the Body • Normally oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells. • When CO enters the body: - it binds to hemoglobin • If too much CO is binding to hemoglobin, then oxygen cannot bind, and cannot be carried to tissues. Hemoglobin • Death by asphyxiation occurs. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -63

Prevent Accidental CO Poisoning List of DO’s DETECTORS • DO- Install a Battery-operated CO Detector In Your Home UNITS WITH DIGITAL READOUT BETTER THAN UNITS WITHOUT – check or replace the battery when you change the time on your clocks each spring and fall • If the Detector Sounds Leave Your Home Immediately and Call 911. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -64

Detecting Nondrug Poisons • Heavy metals q Once commonly encountered in criminal cases of murder q They include: Video 1 - Arsenic - Bismuth Video 2 - Antimony - Mercury FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -65

Detecting Heavy Metals • To detect heavy metals: 1. Reinsch test • The suspected body fluid containing sample will be dissolved in hydrochloric acid and a copper strip is inserted • Appearance of silver or dark coating on copper indicates presence of heavy metal FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -66

Significance of Toxicological Findings • For many drugs, blood concentration levels are readily determined and can be used to estimate the pharmacological effects on the individual. • Urine is a poor indicator of how extensively an individual’s behavior is influenced by the drug. Ø Drugs can be found in the urine one to three days after being taken Ø Urine is still valuable FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -67

Alcohol and Law • To prevent a person’s refusal to take a test for alcohol consumption, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration recommended an “implied consent” law. • Adopted by all states by 1973, this law states that the operation of a motor vehicle on a public highway automatically carries with it the stipulation that a driver will submit for a test for alcohol intoxication if requested or be subject to loss of the license. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -68

Schmerber v. California • Schmerber v. California q Issue of unreasonable search and seizure by police Ø Police seized blood sample from Schmerber without a search warrant q The Court said the blood was taken in a justly, medical manner • Process of collecting evidence is judged only on case-by-case basis. FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -69

End of Chapter 6 FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction By Richard Saferstein PRENTICE HALL © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -70