Chapter 6 FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY FORENSIC SCIENCE An Introduction

Chapter 6 FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -1

Toxicology—the study of the adverse effects of chemicals or physical agents on living organisms. Video Types: Environmental—air, water, soil Consumer—foods, cosmetics, drugs Medical, clinical, forensic 2 FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, By Richard Saferstein 2 nd ed. © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -2

Toxicologists • Toxicologists are charged with the responsibility for detecting and identifying the presence of drugs and poisons in body fluids, tissues, and organs. Video • Toxicologists not only work in crime laboratories and medical examiners’ offices, but may also reach into hospital laboratories and health facilities to identify a drug overdose or monitor the intake of drugs. Careers video FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -3

Mathieu Orfilia – Father of Tox • The father of toxicology was Mathieu Orfilia in the early 1800’s. • His work mainly centered around arsenic. • It was relatively easy to get because it was the rat poison of the day and was the favorite murder weapon among poor people. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -4

Intoxicant vs. Poison: • An intoxicant such as alcohol requires that a relatively large amount be added to be lethal. • A poison, like cyanide, requires a relatively small amount to be fatal. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -5

Forensic Toxicology found in Postmortem—medical examiner or coroner Criminal—motor vehicle accidents (MVA) Workplace—drug testing Sports—human and animals Environment—industrial, catastrophic, terrorism. Video link 6 FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, By Richard Saferstein 2 nd ed. © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -6

Environmental Example: Love Canal New York An example of where forensic toxicology impacts the population is the Love Canal Disaster. Video FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -7

Toxicology Toxic substances may: *Be a cause of death *Contribute to death *Cause impairment *Explain behavior 8 FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, By Richard Saferstein 2 nd ed. © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -8

Life Example: Carbon Monoxide: Video Link FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -9

Aspects of Toxicity Dosage The chemical or physical form of the substance The mode of entry into the body Body weight and physiological conditions of the victim, including age and sex The time period of exposure The presence of other chemicals in the body or in the dose 10 FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, By Richard Saferstein 2 nd ed. © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -10

Lethal Dose LD 50 refers to the dose of a substance that kills half the test population, usually within four hours. Testing is usually done on animals that compare well to humans metabolism. Expressed in milligrams of substance per kilogram of body weight 11 FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, By Richard Saferstein 2 nd ed. © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -11

Toxicity Classification LD 50 (rat, oral) Correlation to Ingestion by 150 -lb Adult Human Toxicity <1 mg/kg a taste to a drop extreme 1– 50 mg/kg to a teaspoon high 50– 500 mg/kg to an ounce moderate 500– 5, 000 mg/kg to a pint slight 5– 15 g/kg to a quart practically nontoxic Over 15 g/kg more than 1 quart relatively harmless 12 FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, By Richard Saferstein 2 nd ed. © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -12

Symptoms of Various Types of Poisoning Type of Poison 1. Caustic poison (lye) Characteristic burns around the lips and mouth of victim 2. Carbon monoxide Red or pink patches on the chest and thigh, unusually bright red lividity 3. Sulfuric acid Black vomit 4. Hydrochloric acid Greenish-brown vomit 5. Cyanide- Seizures, Burnt almond odor 6. Arsenic diarrhea, vomiting, blood in the urine, cramping muscles, stomach pain, and convulsions. 7. Methyl (wood) or isopropyl (rubbing) alcohol Nausea and vomiting, unconsciousness possibly blindness 13 FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, By Richard Saferstein 2 nd ed. © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -13

To Prove a Case Prove a crime was committed Motive Intent Access to poison Access to victim Death was homicidal Death was caused by poison 14 FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, By Richard Saferstein 2 nd ed. © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -14

Alcohol—Ethyl Alcohol (C 2 H 5 OH) Most abused drug in America About 40 percent of all traffic deaths are alcohol-related. Acts as a depressant Toxic—affecting the central nervous system, especially the brain Colorless liquid, generally diluted in water Alcohol appears in blood within minutes; 30– 90 minutes for full absorption Detoxification—about 90 percent in the 15 liver FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -15

Introduction • A major branch of forensic toxicology deals with the measurement of alcohol in the body for matters that pertain to violations of criminal law. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -16

Rate of Absorption Depends on: Amount of alcohol consumed The alcohol content of the beverage Time taken to consume it Quantity and type of food present in the stomach Physiology of the consumer About 5 percent is excreted unchanged in breath, perspiration, and urine 17 FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, By Richard Saferstein 2 nd ed. © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -17

Toxicology of Alcohol • The analysis of alcohol exemplifies the primary objective of forensic toxicology—the detection and isolation of drugs in the body for the purpose of determining their influence on human behavior. • Alcohol, or ethyl alcohol, is a colorless liquid normally diluted with water and consumed as a beverage. • Like any depressant, alcohol principally effects the central nervous system, particularly the brain. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -18

Alcohol on the Breath • A major branch of forensic toxicology deals with the measurement of alcohol in the body for matters that pertain to violations of criminal law. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -19

Alcohol & Circulatory System • Humans have a closed circulatory system consisting of a heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -20

Alcohol & Circulatory System • Alcohol is absorbed from the stomach and small intestines into the blood stream. • Alcohol is carried to the liver where the process of its destruction starts. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -21

Alcohol & Circulatory System • Blood, carrying alcohol, moves to the heart and is pumped to the lungs. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -22

Alcohol & Circulatory System • In the lungs, carbon dioxide and alcohol leave the blood and oxygen enters the blood in the air sacs known as alveoli. • Then the carbon dioxide and alcohol are exhaled during breathing. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -23

Toxicology of Alcohol • The analysis of alcohol exemplifies the primary objective of forensic toxicology—the detection and isolation of drugs in the body for the purpose of determining their influence on human behavior. Video • Alcohol, or ethyl alcohol, is a colorless liquid normally diluted with water and consumed as a beverage. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -24

Breath Testers • Breath testers that operate on the principle of infrared light absorption are becoming increasingly popular within the law enforcement community. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -25

Toxicology of Alcohol • Like any depressant, alcohol principally effects the central nervous system, particularly the brain. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -26

Alcohol Levels • Then the alcohol concentration slowly decreases until a zero level is again reached. • Factors such as time taken to consume the drink, the alcohol content, the amount consumed, and food present in the stomach determine the rate at which alcohol is absorbed. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -27

Alcohol Levels • Elimination of alcohol throughout the body is accomplished through oxidation and excretion. • Oxidation takes place almost entirely in the liver, while alcohol is excreted unchanged in the breath, urine, and perspiration. • The extent to which an individual may be under the influence of alcohol is usually determined by either measuring the quantity of alcohol present in the blood system or by measuring the alcohol content in the breath. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -28

Alcohol Levels • Experimental evidence has verified that the amount of alcohol exhaled in the breath is in direct proportion to the blood concentration. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -29

Alcohol and Law • The American Medical Association and the National Safety Council have been able to exert considerable influence in convincing the states to establish uniform and reasonable bloodalcohol standards. • Between 1939 and 1964 a person having a blood -alcohol level in excess of 0. 15 percent w/v was to be considered under the influence, which was lowered to 0. 10 percent by 1965. • In 1972 the impairment level was recommended to be lowered again to 0. 08 percent w/v. It remains there today. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -30

Alcohol and Law • To prevent a person’s refusal to take a test for alcohol consumption, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration recommended an “implied consent” law. • Adopted by all states by 1973, this law states that the operation of a motor vehicle on a public highway automatically carries with it the stipulation that a driver will submit for a test for alcohol intoxication if requested or be subject to loss of the license. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -31

Breath Testers • Many types of breath testers are designed to analyze a set volume of breath. • The captured breath is exposed to infrared light. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -32

Breath Testers • It’s the degree of the interaction of the light with alcohol in the captured breath sample that allows the instrument to measure a blood alcohol concentration in breath. • Some breath testing devices also use fuel cells. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -33

Field Testing • Law enforcement officers typically use field sobriety tests to estimate a motorist’s degree of physical impairment by alcohol and whether or not an evidential test for alcohol is justified. • The horizontal gaze nystagmus test, walk and turn, and the one-leg stand are all considered reliable and effective psychophysical tests. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -34

Gas Chromatography Testing • Gas chromatography offers the toxicologist the most widely used approach for determining alcohol levels in blood. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -35

Gas Chromatography Testing • Blood must always be drawn under medically accepted conditions by a qualified individual. • It is important that a nonalcoholic disinfectant be applied before the suspect’s skin is penetrated with a sterile needle or lancet. • Once blood is removed from an individual, its preservation is best ensured when it is sealed in an airtight container after an anticoagulant and a preservative have been added and stored in a refrigerator. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -36

The Confirmation Step • The GC separates the sample into its components, while the MS represents a unique “fingerprint” pattern that can be used for identification. • Once the drug is extracted and identified, the toxicologist may be required to provide an opinion on the drug’s effect on an individual’s natural performance or physical state. FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction, 2 nd ed. By Richard Saferstein © 2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 -37