Chapter 6 ACADEMIC ARGUMENTS ACADEMIC ARGUMENTS Writing addressed
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Chapter 6 ACADEMIC ARGUMENTS
ACADEMIC ARGUMENTS � Writing addressed to a well-informed audience about a topic � Attempts to convey a clear and compelling point in a somewhat formal style � “carefully structured research”
CHARACTERISTICS � Is authoritative � Reviews what is known about a topic and creates new knowledge about it � Focuses on issues that are important to the writer’s academic peers � Includes logical appeals based on careful research
CHARACTERISTICS CONT… � Cites every source carefully and provides bibliographical references so others can find the sources � Is written in a clear formal style � Has an even-handed tone, deals fairly with any opposing points of view, and avoids appeals to emotion
DEVELOPING AN ACADEMIC ARGUMENT � Choose a topic you want to explore in depth � Get to know the conversation surrounding your topic � Assess what you know and what you need to know � Begin formulating a claim about your topic � Consider your rhetorical stance and purpose
DEVELOPING AN ACADEMIC ARGUMENT � Think about your audience � Concentrate on the material you are gathering � Take special care with your documentation � Think about organization � Consider style and tone � Consider design and visuals � Reflect on your draft and get responses � Edit and proofread your text
Chapter 7 STRUCTURING ARGUMENTS
STRUCTURING ARGUMENTS � Defines which parts go where � Logical arguments described as: � Inductive reasoning � Deductive reasoning
INDUCTIVE REASONING � Process of generalizing on the basis of a number of specific examples I get hives after eating crawdads. My mouth swells up when I eat clams. Shrimp triggers my asthma. Shellfish makes me ill.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING � Reaches a conclusion by assuming a general principle (major premise) Shellfish makes me ill. Lobster is a type of shellfish. Lobster will make me ill.
INDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE I get hives after eating crawdads. Shellfish makes me ill. My mouth swells up when I eat clams. Lobster is a type of shellfish. Shrimp triggers my asthma. Lobster will make me ill. Shellfish makes me ill.
INFLUENTIAL WAYS OF STRUCTURING 1. 2. 3. Classical Oration Rogerian Argument Toulmin Argument
CLASSICAL ORATION Structure used by Greek and Roman rhetoricians � Think as arguments as debates that have winners and losers � Sequence of 6 parts � 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Exordium Narratio Partitico Confirmatio Refutatio Peroratio
CLASSICAL ORATION 1. Introduction � � Background � � Presents good reasons (logical & emotional appeal) Alternative arguments � � Present necessary information Lines of argument � � Gain reader interest Alternative points of view & opposing arguments Conclusion � Summarizes argument, makes clear what you want the audience to do
ROGERIAN ARGUMENT � People involved in disputes should not respond to each other until they could fully, fairly, and even sympathetically state the other person’s position. Willingness to think about opposing positions and to describe them fairily.
ROGERIAN STRUCTURE � Introduction � Rich description to demonstrate that the writer fully understands alternative positions � Contexts � Describe the contexts in which the alternative positions may be valid � Writer’s � State valid Position position and present circumstances making opinion � Benefits to opponent � Explain to opponents how they would benefit from adopting their position
ROGERIAN ARGUMENT � Must acknowledge that alternative to your claims exist and they are reasonable under certain circumstances � Moves toward understanding and cooperation � Structure your arguments to learn opposing positions well enough to state them accurately and honestly
TOULMIN ARGUMENT � Acknowledges � Use the complications of life of qualifiers
MAKING CLAIMS � Arguments � Claims begin with claims – debatable assertions you hope to prove worth arguing tend to be controversial � No point in arguing point on which people agree � Claim answers the question: “What’s your point? ”
MAKING CLAIMS Simple, Undeveloped Claims � It’s time to legalize the medical use of marijuana. � NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars. � Vegetarianism is the best choice of diet. *note: these claims are statements, not questions
MAKING CLAIMS � Ask a question to reach a claim � Should NASA launch more robotic interstellar probes? Can NASA even afford to send people to Mars? Answer: NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars. � Good claims often spring from personal experiences. � We all know something to merit the label expert.
OFFERING EVIDENCE AND GOOD REASONS �A claim must have some evidence and good reasons to support it Evidence & Reason � Attaching So Claim a reason to a claim often spells out the major terms of an argument. � Do the reason & evidence offered really support the claim?
DETERMINING WARRANTS � Must be a logical & persuasive connection b/t the claim and the reasons & data supporting Evidence & Reason So Claim Since Warrant �A sound warrant give you authority to proceed with your case
WARRANTS The mushroom is poisonous. So Don’t eat it. Since Eating poisonous things is dangerous. General principle that enables you to justify the move from a reason to a specific claim – the bridge connecting them.
WARRANTS � Tell you what arguments you have to make and at what level you have to make them. � Controversial warrant = more explanation � When possible – choose warrant knowing your audience, context of your argument, and your own feelings.
OFFERING EVIDENCE - BACKING � Warrants suggest the scope of the evidence � Use backing to provide the background or history on the subject � Backing – evidence to support your warrant � Toulmin – readers have to agree on some basic principles, or the argument becomes pointless
USING QUALIFIERS � Words and phrases that place limits on claims � Using qualifiers make writing more precise and honest Few More or less Often Possible Examples: � Never It seems Rarely Most In general In the main Many In some cases perhaps assume your readers know the limits you have in mind – you must state them as precisely as possible
UNDERSTANDING CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL � Know potential objections to your argument � Understand reacting to these conditions are essential to support your own claims where they’re weak � You gain credibility & authority by anticipating a reasonable objection � Anticipating objections broadens your horizons and likely makes your more open to change
- Differentiate formal writing from technical writing
- Business writing vs academic writing
- Partially addressed mail service
- Unusual situations that have not been often addressed.
- The third epistle of st. john is addressed to________.
- Partially addressed mail
- Addressed to the party misled peek v gurney
- Technology addressed
- U types
- Invoked audience
- Academic writing introduction
- Writing in academic contexts
- Unity coherence
- Quote about academic writing
- Nominalisation writing
- Logical fallacies in academic writing
- What is academic writing
- Semi open writing assignment
- Academic writing explicitness
- Harvard academic writing
- How to list in academic writing
- Assertive tone in literature
- Academic writing and composition
- Contoh academic writing
- The technique of clear writing
- Academic english reading and writing across the disciplines
- Formality in academic writing exercises
- Synthesising in academic writing
- Templates for explaining quotations