Chapter 5 Variables Names Bindings Type Checking and

Introduction This lecture introduces the fundamental semantic issues of variables – It covers the nature of names and special words in programming languages, attributes of variables, concepts of binding and binding times. – It investigates type checking, strong typing and type compatibility rules. – At the end it discusses named constraints and variable initialization techniques. CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 2

On Names • Humans are the only species to have the concept of a name. • It’s given philosophers, writers and computer scientists lots to do for many years. – The logician Frege’s famous morning star and evening star example. – "What's in a name? That which we call a rose by any other word would smell as sweet. " -- Romeo and Juliet, W. Shakespeare – The semantic web proposes using URLs as names for everything. • In programming languages, names are character strings used to refer to program entities – e. g. , labels, procedures, parameters, storage locations, etc. CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 3

Names There are some basic design issues involving names: – Maximum length? – What characters are allowed? – Are names case sensitive? – Are special words reserved words or keywords? – Do names determine or suggest attributes CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 4

Names: implied attributes • We often use conventions that associate attributes with name patterns. • Some of these are just style conventions while others are part of the language spec and are used by compilers CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 11

Examples of implied attributes • LISP: global variables begin and end with an asterisk, e. g. , (if (> t *time-out-in-seconds*) (blue-screen)) • JAVA: class names begin with an upper case character, field and method names with a lower case character for(Student s : the. Class) s. set. Grade(“A”); • PERL: scalar variable names begin with a $, arrays with @, and hashtables with %, subroutines begin with a &. $d 1 = “Monday”; $d 2=“Wednesday”; $d 3= “Friday”; @days = ($d 1, $d 2, $d 3); • FORTRAN: default variable type is float unless it begins with one of {I, J, K, L, M, N} in which case it’s integer DO 100 I = 1, N 100 ISUM = ISUM + I CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 12

Variables • A variable is an abstraction of a memory cell • Can represent complex data structures with lots of structure (e. g. , records, arrays, objects, etc. ) current_student CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 13

Attributes of Variables can be characterized as a 6 -tuple of attributes: – Name: identifier used to refer to the variable – Address: memory location(s) holding the variables value – Value: particular value at a moment – Type: range of possible values – Lifetime: when the variable can be accessed – Scope: where in the program it can be accessed CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 14

Variables Type • Typing is a rich subject in Computer Science • Most languages associate a variable with a single type • The type determines the range of values and the operations allowed for a variable • In the case of floating point, type usually also determines the precision (e. g. , float vs. double) • In some languages (e. g. , Lisp, Python, Prolog) a variable can take on values of any type. • OO languages (e. g. Java) have a few primitive types (int, float, char) and everything else is a pointer to an object, but the objects form a kind of user-defined type system CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 18

Functions have types too • Procedures or mehtods that return a value have a type, also: the type of the value returned • One of the most common way to describe a function is by its type signature • A type signature describes the types of each input and the type of the output power: float × integer float CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 19

Contrasts in Type Systems • Type systems are often described by their design decisions along several dimensions – Static vs. dynamic types – Strong vs. Weak typing – Explicit vs. implicit type conversion – Explicit vs. implicit type declarations • Although the dimensions appear to be binary choices, there are intermediate choices in many cases CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 20

Variable Value • The value is the contents of the memory location with which the variable is associated. • Think of an abstract memory location, rather than a physical one. – Abstract memory cell - the physical cell or collection of cells associated with a variable • A variable’s type will determine how the bits in the cell are interpreted to produce a value. • We sometimes talk about lvalues and rvalues. CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 21

lvalue and rvalue Are the two occurrences of “a” in this expression the same? a : = a + 1; In a sense, • The on the left of the assignment refers to the location of the variable whose name is a; • The on the right of the assignment refers to the value of the variable whose name is a; We sometimes speak of a variable’s lvalue and rvalue • The lvalue of a variable is its address • The rvalue of a variable is its value CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 22

Binding • Def: A binding is an association, such as between an attribute and an entity, or between an operation and a symbol • It’s like assignment, but more general • We often talk of binding – a variable to a value, as in class. Size is bound to the number of students – A symbol to an operator + is bound to the inner product operation • Def: Binding time is the time at which a binding takes place. CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 23

Possible binding times • Language design time, e. g. , bind operator symbols to operations • Language implementation time, e. g. , bind floating point type to a representation • Compile time, e. g. , bind a variable to a type in C or Java • Link time • Load time, e. g. , bind a FORTRAN 77 variable to memory cell (or a C static variable) • Runtime, e. g. , bind a nonstatic local variable to a memory cell CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 24

Type Bindings • Def: A binding is static if it occurs before run time and remains unchanged throughout program execution. • Def: A binding is dynamic if it occurs during execution or can change during execution of the program. • Type binding issues include: • How is a type specified? • When does the binding take place? • If static, type may be specified by either explicit or an implicit declarations CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 25

Declarations • Many languages require or allow the types of variables and functions to be declared • Def: An explicit declaration is a program statement used for declaring the types of variables • Def: An implicit declaration is a default mechanism for specifying types of variables (the first appearance of the variable in the program) CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 26

Implicit Variable Declarations • Some examples of implicit type declarations – In C undeclared variables are assumed to be of type int – In Perl, variables of type scalar, array and hash begin with a $, @ or %, respectively. – Fortran variables beginning with I-N are assumed to be of type integer. – ML (and other languages) use sophisticated type inference mechanisms • Advantages and disadvantages – Advantages: writability, convenience – Disadvantages: reliability – requiring explicit type declarations catches bugs revealed by type mis-matches CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 27

Dynamic Type Binding • With dynamic binding, a variable’s type can change as the program runs and might be rebound on every assignment. • Used in scripting languages (Javascript, PHP, Python) and some older languages (Lisp, Basic, Prolog, APL) • In this APL example LIST is first a vector of integers and then of floats: LIST <- 2 4 6 8 LIST <- 17. 3 23. 5 • Here’s a javascript example list = [2, 4. 33, 6, 8]; list = 17. 3; CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 28

Dynamic Type Binding • The advantages of dynamic typing include – Flexibility for the programmer – Obviates the need for “polymorphic” types – Development of generic functions (e. g. sort) • But there are disadvantages as well – Types have to be constantly checked at run time – A compiler can’t detect errors via type mismatches • Mostly used by scripting languages today CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 29

Static Type Binding • In a static type system, types are fixed before the program is run (aka, compile time) • Compatibility checking can be done by a compiler and errors flagged • Some claim that most program errors are type errors • Another advantage is that the resulting code need not check for type mismatches at run time, which speeds up execution • It typically requires adding type declarations (a pain) but these can also be seen as a kind of documentation (a benefit) CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 30

Type Inferencing • Type inferencing is used in some programming languages, including ML, Miranda, and Haskell • Types are determined from the context of the reference, rather than just by assignment statement • The compiler can trace how values flow through variables and function arguments • The result is that the types of most variables can be deduced! Any remaining ambiguity is treated as an error the programmer must fix by adding explicit declarations • Many feel it combines the advantages of dynamic typing and static typing CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 31

Type Inferencing in ML fun circumf(r) = 3. 14159*r*r; // infer r is real fun time 10(x) = 10*x; // infer r is integer fun square(x) = x*x; // can’t deduce types // default type is int We can explicitly type in several ways and enable the compiler to deduce that the function returns a real and takes a real argument fun fun square(x): real = x*x; square(x: real) = x*x; square(x) = x: real*x; square(x) = x*x: real; CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 32

Duck Typing • A kind of dynamic typing typified by Python ad Ruby • An object's current set of methods and properties determines the valid semantics, rather than its inheritance from a particular class • If it walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, I would call it a duck. CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 33

Duck Typing example def calculate(a, b, c): return (a+b)*c a = calculate(1, 2, 3) b = calculate([1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], 2) c = calculate('apples ’, 'and oranges, ', 3) print ‘a is’, a print ‘b is’, b print ‘c is’, c CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 34

Type Checking Generalize the concept of operands and operators to include subprograms and assignments • Type checking is the activity of ensuring that the operands of an operator are of compatible types • A compatible type is one that is either legal for the operator, or is allowed under language rules to be implicitly converted, by compiler-generated code, to a legal type. • This automatic conversion is called a coercion. • A type error is the application of an operator to an operand of an inappropriate type • Note: • If all type bindings are static, nearly all checking can be static • If type bindings are dynamic, type checking must be dynamic CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 40

Strong vs. Weak Typing • We often categorize a programming languages into two classes: – Strongly typed – Weakly typed • based on their system of assigning types to variables and functions • The notions of strong and weak typing do not have consensus definitions, however CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 41

Strong Typing Features A programming language is strongly typed if • type errors are always detected • There is strict enforcement of type rules with no exceptions. • All types are known at compile time, i. e. are statically bound. • With variables that can store values of more than one type, incorrect type usage can be detected at run-time. • Strong typing catches more errors at compile time than weak typing, resulting in fewer run-time exceptions. CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 42

Which languages have strong typing? • Fortran 77 isn’t because it doesn’t check parameters and because of variable equivalence statements. • The languages Ada, Java, and Haskell are strongly typed. • Pascal is (almost) strongly typed, but variant records screw it up • C and C++ are sometimes described as strongly typed, but are perhaps better described as weakly typed because parameter type checking can be avoided and unions are not type checked • Coercion rules strongly affect strong typing—they can weaken it considerably (C++ versus Ada) • See http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Comparison_of_programmin g_languages#Type_systems CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 43

Weak typing and coersion • Doing a lot of implicit (automatic) coersion weakens the type system • Most languages do it to some degree X=1 Y = 2. 0 X+Y • But overuse can cause problems X=1 Y = “ 2” X+Y CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 44

Weak typing and coercion • Doing a lot of implicit (automatic) coercion weakens the type system • Most languages do it to some degree X=1 Y = 2. 0 X+Y Many languages will produce the float 3. 0 for X+Y • But overuse can cause problems X=1 Y = “ 2” X+Y is 3 in Visual Basic and “ 12” in javascript CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 45

What about Scheme and Python? • People argue about whether that are strongly or weakly typed • Partly it’s because the terms do not have a clear consensus definition and partly out of confusion and partly a result of conflating the issue with static vs. dynamic typing • Polymorphism and operator overloading obscure the judgment • I’m with the camp that describes both as strongly typed CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 46

Type Compatibility • Type compatibility by name means two variables have compatible types if they are in either the same declaration or in declarations that use the same type name Easy to implement but highly restrictive: • Subranges of integer types aren’t compatible with integer types • Formal parameters must be the same type as their corresponding actual parameters (Pascal) • Type compatibility by structure means that two variables have compatible types if their types have identical structures More flexible, but harder to implement CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 47

Subtypes and ranges • Some languages such as Ada make it easy to define subtypes, as in subtype DAY_NUMBER_T is integer range 1. . 31; subtype NATURAL is INTEGER range 0. . INTEGER'LAST; subtype POSITIVE is INTEGER range 1. . INTEGER'LAST; • Pascal made good use of integer ranges type a = 1. . 100; b = -20. . 20; c = 0. . 100000; CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 48

Type Compatibility Consider the problem of two structured types Suppose they are circularly defined • Are two record types compatible if they are structurally the same but use different field names? • Are two array types compatible if they are the same except that the subscripts are different? (e. g. [1. . 10] and [-5. . 4]) • Are two enumeration types compatible if their components are spelled differently? With structural type compatibility, you cannot differentiate between types of the same structure (e. g. different units of speed, both float) CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 49

Type Compatibility Language examples Pascal: usually structure, but in some cases name is used (formal parameters) C: structure, except for records Ada: restricted form of name – Derived types allow types with the same structure to be different – Anonymous types are all unique, even in: A, B : array (1. . 10) of INTEGER: CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 50

Type Safety • A programming language is type safe if the only operations that are performed on data in the language are those sanctioned by the type of the data • i. e. , no type errors! • The checking can be done at compile time or run time • C is not type safe • Standard ML has been proven to be type safe • Haskell is thought to be type safe if you don’t use some features (type punning) CMSC 331. Some material © 1998 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 51