Chapter 5 b Link Layer and LANs for

Chapter 5 b Link Layer and LANs (for reference only) Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach 5 th edition. Jim Kurose, Keith Ross Addison-Wesley, April 2009. 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -1

Link Layer r 5. 1 Introduction and r r services 5. 2 Error detection and correction 5. 3 Multiple access protocols 5. 4 Link-Layer Addressing 5. 5 Ethernet r 5. 6 Link-layer switches r 5. 7 PPP r 5. 8 Link virtualization: MPLS r 5. 9 A day in the life of a web request 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -2

Ethernet “dominant” wired LAN technology: r cheap $20 for NIC r first widely used LAN technology r simpler, cheaper than token LANs and ATM r kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps Metcalfe’s Ethernet sketch 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -3

Star topology r bus topology popular through mid 90 s m all nodes in same collision domain (can collide with each other) r today: star topology prevails m active switch in center m each “spoke” runs a (separate) Ethernet protocol (nodes do not collide with each other) switch bus: coaxial cable star 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -4

Ethernet Frame Structure Sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame Preamble: r 7 bytes with pattern 1010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011 r used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -5

Ethernet Frame Structure (more) r Addresses: 6 bytes m if adapter receives frame with matching destination address, or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet), it passes data in frame to network layer protocol m otherwise, adapter discards frame r Type: indicates higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others possible, e. g. , Novell IPX, Apple. Talk) r CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, frame is dropped 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -6

Ethernet: Unreliable, connectionless r connectionless: No handshaking between sending and receiving NICs r unreliable: receiving NIC doesn’t send acks or nacks to sending NIC m m m stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gaps (missing datagrams) gaps will be filled if app is using TCP otherwise, app will see gaps r Ethernet’s MAC protocol: unslotted CSMA/CD 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -7

Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm 1. NIC receives datagram 4. If NIC detects another from network layer, transmission while creates frame transmitting, aborts and sends jam signal 2. If NIC senses channel idle, starts frame transmission 5. After aborting, NIC If NIC senses channel enters exponential busy, waits until channel backoff: after mth idle, then transmits collision, NIC chooses K at random from 3. If NIC transmits entire {0, 1, 2, …, 2 m-1}. NIC waits frame without detecting K·512 bit times, returns to another transmission, NIC Step 2 is done with frame ! 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -8

Ethernet’s CSMA/CD (more) Jam Signal: make sure all other transmitters are aware of collision; 48 bits Bit time: . 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet ; for K=1023, wait time is about 50 msec See/interact with Java applet on AWL Web site: highly recommended ! Exponential Backoff: r Goal: adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load m heavy load: random wait will be longer r first collision: choose K from {0, 1}; delay is K· 512 bit transmission times r after second collision: choose K from {0, 1, 2, 3}… r after ten collisions, choose K from {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …, 1023} 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -9

CSMA/CD efficiency r Tprop = max prop delay between 2 nodes in LAN r ttrans = time to transmit max-size frame r efficiency goes to 1 m as tprop goes to 0 m as ttrans goes to infinity r better performance than ALOHA: and simple, cheap, decentralized! 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -10

802. 3 Ethernet Standards: Link & Physical Layers r many different Ethernet standards m common MAC protocol and frame format m different speeds: 2 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, 10 G bps m different physical layer media: fiber, cable application transport network link physical MAC protocol and frame format 100 BASE-TX 100 BASE-T 2 100 BASE-FX 100 BASE-T 4 100 BASE-SX 100 BASE-BX copper (twister pair) physical layer fiber physical layer 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -11

Manchester encoding r used in 10 Base. T r each bit has a transition r allows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other m no need for a centralized, global clock among nodes! r Hey, this is physical-layer stuff! 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -12

Link Layer r 5. 1 Introduction and r r services 5. 2 Error detection and correction 5. 3 Multiple access protocols 5. 4 Link-layer Addressing 5. 5 Ethernet r 5. 6 Link-layer switches, LANs, VLANs r 5. 7 PPP r 5. 8 Link virtualization: MPLS r 5. 9 A day in the life of a web request 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -13

Hubs … physical-layer (“dumb”) repeaters: m bits coming in one link go out all other links at same rate m all nodes connected to hub can collide with one another m no frame buffering m no CSMA/CD at hub: host NICs detect collisions twisted pair hub 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -14

Switch r link-layer device: smarter than hubs, take active role m store, forward Ethernet frames m examine incoming frame’s MAC address, selectively forward frame to one-or-more outgoing links when frame is to be forwarded on segment, uses CSMA/CD to access segment r transparent m hosts are unaware of presence of switches r plug-and-play, self-learning m switches do not need to be configured 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -15

Switch: allows multiple simultaneous transmissions A r hosts have dedicated, direct connection to switch r switches buffer packets r Ethernet protocol used on each incoming link, but no collisions; full duplex m each link is its own collision domain r switching: A-to-A’ and B-to- B’ simultaneously, without collisions m not possible with dumb hub C’ B 6 1 5 2 3 4 C B’ A’ switch with six interfaces (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -16

Switch Table r Q: how does switch know that A’ reachable via interface 4, B’ reachable via interface 5? r A: each switch has a switch table, each entry: m C’ B 6 r Q: how are entries created, maintained in switch table? something like a routing protocol? 1 5 (MAC address of host, interface to reach host, time stamp) r looks like a routing table! m A 2 3 4 C B’ A’ switch with six interfaces (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -17

Switch: self-learning r switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces m m Source: A Dest: A’ A A A’ C’ when frame received, switch “learns” location of sender: incoming LAN segment records sender/location pair in switch table B 1 6 5 2 3 4 C B’ A’ MAC addr interface TTL A 1 60 Switch table (initially empty) 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -18

Switch: frame filtering/forwarding When frame received: 1. record link associated with sending host 2. index switch table using MAC dest address 3. if entry found for destination then { if dest on segment from which frame arrived then drop the frame else forward the frame on interface indicated } else flood forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -19

Self-learning, forwarding: example Source: A Dest: A’ A A A’ C’ B r frame destination unknown: flood A 6 A’ 1 2 4 5 r destination A location known: selective send C A’ A B’ 3 A’ MAC addr interface TTL A A’ 1 4 60 60 Switch table (initially empty) 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -20

Interconnecting switches r switches can be connected together S 4 S 1 S 2 A B S 3 C F D E I G H r Q: sending from A to G - how does S 1 know to forward frame destined to F via S 4 and S 3? r A: self learning! (works exactly the same as in single-switch case!) 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -21

Self-learning multi-switch example Suppose C sends frame to I, I responds to C S 4 1 S 2 A B C 2 S 3 F D E I G H r Q: show switch tables and packet forwarding in S 1, S 2, S 3, S 4 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -22

Institutional network to external network mail server router web server IP subnet 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -23

Switches vs. Routers r both store-and-forward devices m routers: network layer devices (examine network layer headers) m switches are link layer devices r routers maintain routing tables, implement routing algorithms r switches maintain switch tables, implement filtering, learning algorithms 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -24

VLANs: motivation What’s wrong with this picture? What happens if: r CS user moves office to EE, but wants connect to CS switch? r single broadcast domain: m Computer Science Electrical Engineering Computer Engineering all layer-2 broadcast traffic (ARP, DHCP) crosses entire LAN (security/privacy, efficiency issues) r each lowest level switch has only few ports in use 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -25

VLANs Port-based VLAN: switch ports grouped (by switch management software) so that single physical switch …… Virtual Local Area Network Switch(es) supporting VLAN capabilities can be configured to define multiple virtual LANS over single physical LAN infrastructure. 1 7 9 15 2 8 10 16 … … Electrical Engineering (VLAN ports 1 -8) Computer Science (VLAN ports 9 -15) … operates as multiple virtual switches 1 7 9 15 2 8 10 16 … Electrical Engineering (VLAN ports 1 -8) … Computer Science (VLAN ports 9 -16) 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -26

Port-based VLAN router r traffic isolation: frames to/from ports 1 -8 can only reach ports 1 -8 m can also define VLAN based on MAC addresses of endpoints, rather than switch port r dynamic membership: ports can be dynamically assigned among VLANs 1 7 9 15 2 8 10 16 … Electrical Engineering (VLAN ports 1 -8) … Computer Science (VLAN ports 9 -15) r forwarding between VLANS: done via routing (just as with separate switches) m in practice vendors sell combined switches plus routers 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -27

VLANS spanning multiple switches 1 7 9 15 1 3 5 7 2 8 10 16 2 4 6 8 … Electrical Engineering (VLAN ports 1 -8) … Computer Science (VLAN ports 9 -15) Ports 2, 3, 5 belong to EE VLAN Ports 4, 6, 7, 8 belong to CS VLAN r trunk port: carries frames between VLANS defined over multiple physical switches m m frames forwarded within VLAN between switches can’t be vanilla 802. 1 frames (must carry VLAN ID info) 802. 1 q protocol adds/removed additional header fields for frames forwarded between trunk ports 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -28

802. 1 Q VLAN frame format Type 802. 1 frame 802. 1 Q frame 2 -byte Tag Protocol Identifier (value: 81 -00) Recomputed CRC Tag Control Information (12 bit VLAN ID field, 3 bit priority field like IP TOS) 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -29

Link Layer r 5. 1 Introduction and r r services 5. 2 Error detection and correction 5. 3 Multiple access protocols 5. 4 Link-Layer Addressing 5. 5 Ethernet r 5. 6 Link-layer switches r 5. 7 PPP r 5. 8 Link virtualization: MPLS r 5. 9 A day in the life of a web request 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -30

Point to Point Data Link Control r one sender, one receiver, one link: easier than broadcast link: m no Media Access Control m no need for explicit MAC addressing m e. g. , dialup link, ISDN line r popular point-to-point DLC protocols: m PPP (point-to-point protocol) m HDLC: High level data link control (Data link used to be considered “high layer” in protocol stack! 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -31

PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557] r packet framing: encapsulation of network-layer r r datagram in data link frame m carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same time m ability to demultiplex upwards bit transparency: must carry any bit pattern in the data field error detection (no correction) connection liveness: detect, signal link failure to network layer address negotiation: endpoint can learn/configure each other’s network address 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -32

PPP non-requirements r no error correction/recovery r no flow control r out of order delivery OK r no need to support multipoint links (e. g. , polling) Error recovery, flow control, data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers! 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -33

PPP Data Frame r Flag: delimiter (framing) r Address: does nothing (only one option) r Control: does nothing; in the future possible multiple control fields r Protocol: upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg, PPP-LCP, IPCP, etc) 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -34

PPP Data Frame r info: upper layer data being carried r check: cyclic redundancy check for error detection 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -35

Byte Stuffing r “data transparency” requirement: data field must be allowed to include flag pattern <01111110> m Q: is received <01111110> data or flag? r Sender: adds (“stuffs”) extra < 01111110> byte after each < 01111110> data byte r Receiver: m two 01111110 bytes in a row: discard first byte, continue data reception m single 01111110: flag byte 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -36

Byte Stuffing flag byte pattern in data to send flag byte pattern plus stuffed byte in transmitted data 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -37

PPP Data Control Protocol Before exchanging networklayer data, data link peers must r configure PPP link (max. frame length, authentication) r learn/configure network layer information m for IP: carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field: 8021) to configure/learn IP address 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -38

Link Layer r 5. 1 Introduction and r r services 5. 2 Error detection and correction 5. 3 Multiple access protocols 5. 4 Link-Layer Addressing 5. 5 Ethernet r 5. 6 Link-layer switches r 5. 7 PPP r 5. 8 Link virtualization: MPLS r 5. 9 A day in the life of a web request 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -39

Virtualization of networks Virtualization of resources: powerful abstraction in systems engineering: r computing examples: virtual memory, virtual devices m Virtual machines: e. g. , java m IBM VM os from 1960’s/70’s r layering of abstractions: don’t sweat the details of the lower layer, only deal with lower layers abstractly 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -40

The Internet: virtualizing networks 1974: multiple unconnected nets m ARPAnet m data-over-cable networks m packet satellite network (Aloha) m packet radio network ARPAnet "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication", V. Cerf, R. Kahn, IEEE Transactions on Communications, May, 1974, pp. 637 -648. … differing in: m addressing conventions m packet formats m error recovery m routing satellite net 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -41

The Internet: virtualizing networks Internetwork layer (IP): r addressing: internetwork appears as single, uniform entity, despite underlying local network heterogeneity r network of networks Gateway: r “embed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract them” r route (at internetwork level) to next gateway ARPAnet satellite net 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -42

Cerf & Kahn’s Internetwork Architecture What is virtualized? r two layers of addressing: internetwork and local network r new layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layer r underlying local network technology m cable m satellite m 56 K telephone modem m today: ATM, MPLS … “invisible” at internetwork layer. Looks like a link layer technology to IP! 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -43

ATM and MPLS r ATM, MPLS separate networks in their own right m different service models, addressing, routing from Internet r viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers m just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network) r ATM, MPLS: of technical interest in their own right 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -44

Asynchronous Transfer Mode: ATM r 1990’s/00 standard for high-speed (155 Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architecture r Goal: integrated, end-end transport of carry voice, video, data m meeting timing/Qo. S requirements of voice, video (versus Internet best-effort model) m “next generation” telephony: technical roots in telephone world m packet-switching (fixed length packets, called “cells”) using virtual circuits 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -45

Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS) r initial goal: speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding m m borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approach but IP datagram still keeps IP address! PPP or Ethernet header MPLS header label 20 IP header remainder of link-layer frame Exp S TTL 3 1 5 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -46

MPLS capable routers r a. k. a. label-switched router r forwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (don’t inspect IP address) m MPLS tables forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding r signaling protocol needed to set up forwarding m RSVP-TE m forwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (e. g. , source-specific routing) !! m use MPLS for traffic engineering r must co-exist with IP-only routers 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -47

MPLS forwarding tables in label out label dest 10 12 8 out interface A D A R 6 0 0 1 in label 0 R 4 R 5 out label dest 10 6 A 1 12 9 D 0 0 1 R 3 out interface D 1 0 0 R 2 in label 8 out label dest 6 A out interface 0 in label 6 out. R 1 label dest - A A out interface 0 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -48

Link Layer r 5. 1 Introduction and r r services 5. 2 Error detection and correction 5. 3 Multiple access protocols 5. 4 Link-Layer Addressing 5. 5 Ethernet r 5. 6 Link-layer switches r 5. 7 PPP r 5. 8 Link virtualization: MPLS r 5. 9 A day in the life of a web request 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -49

Synthesis: a day in the life of a web request r journey down protocol stack complete! m application, transport, network, link r putting-it-all-together: synthesis! m goal: identify, review, understand protocols (at all layers) involved in seemingly simple scenario: requesting www page m scenario: student attaches laptop to campus network, requests/receives www. google. com 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -50

A day in the life: scenario DNS server browser Comcast network 68. 80. 0. 0/13 school network 68. 80. 2. 0/24 web page web server 64. 233. 169. 105 Google’s network 64. 233. 160. 0/19 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -51

A day in the life… connecting to the Internet r connecting laptop needs to DHCP UDP IP Eth Phy DHCP DHCP DHCP UDP IP Eth Phy router (runs DHCP) get its own IP address, addr of first-hop router, addr of DNS server: use DHCP request encapsulated in UDP, encapsulated in IP, encapsulated in 802. 1 Ethernet r Ethernet frame broadcast (dest: FFFFFF) on LAN, received at router running DHCP server r Ethernet demux’ed to IP demux’ed, UDP demux’ed to DHCP 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -52

A day in the life… connecting to the Internet r DHCP server formulates DHCP UDP IP Eth Phy DHCP DHCP ACK containing client’s IP address, IP address of first-hop router for client, name & IP address of DNS server r encapsulation at DHCP DHCP UDP IP Eth Phy router (runs DHCP) server, frame forwarded (switch learning) through LAN, demultiplexing at client r DHCP client receives DHCP ACK reply Client now has IP address, knows name & addr of DNS server, IP address of its first-hop router 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -53

A day in the life… ARP (before DNS, before HTTP) DNS DNS ARP query r before sending HTTP request, need IP address of www. google. com: DNS UDP IP ARP Eth Phy ARP reply Eth Phy DNS r DNS query created, encapsulated in UDP, encapsulated in IP, encasulated in Eth. In order to send frame to router, need MAC address of router interface: ARP r ARP query broadcast, received by router, which replies with ARP reply giving MAC address of router interface r client now knows MAC address of first hop router, so can now send frame containing DNS query 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -54

A day in the life… using DNS DNS UDP IP Eth Phy DNS DNS DNS UDP IP Eth Phy DNS server Comcast network 68. 80. 0. 0/13 r IP datagram forwarded from r IP datagram containing DNS query forwarded via LAN switch from client to 1 st hop router campus network into comcast network, routed (tables created by RIP, OSPF, IS-IS and/or BGP routing protocols) to DNS server r demux’ed to DNS server replies to client with IP address of www. google. com 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -55

A day in the life… TCP connection carrying HTTP TCP IP Eth Phy SYNACK SYN r to send HTTP request, SYNACK SYN SYNACK TCP IP Eth Phy web server 64. 233. 169. 105 client first opens TCP socket to web server r TCP SYN segment (step 1 in 3 -way handshake) interdomain routed to web server responds with TCP SYNACK (step 2 in 3 way handshake) r TCP connection established! 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -56

A day in the life… HTTP request/reply HTTP TCP IP Eth Phy HTTP HTTP r web page finally (!!!) displayed r HTTP request sent into TCP socket HTTP HTTP TCP IP Eth Phy web server 64. 233. 169. 105 r IP datagram containing HTTP request routed to www. google. com r web server responds with HTTP reply (containing web page) r IP datgram containing HTTP reply routed back to client 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -57

Chapter 5: Summary r principles behind data link layer services: m error detection, correction m sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access m link layer addressing r instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies m Ethernet m switched LANS, VLANs m PPP m virtualized networks as a link layer: MPLS r synthesis: a day in the life of a web request 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -58

Chapter 5: let’s take a breath r journey down protocol stack complete (except PHY) r solid understanding of networking principles, practice r …. . could stop here …. but lots of interesting topics! m wireless m multimedia m security m network management 5: Data. Link Layer 5 -59