Chapter 40 Key Concepts The functions of animal

Chapter 40 - Key Concepts The functions of animal tissues and organs are correlated with their structures. n Bioenergetics is fundamental to all animal functions. n An animal’s size and shape affect its interactions with the external environment. n Homeostatic mechanisms regulate an animal’s internal environment. n

Points to Know: What is a tissue? n What are the four main tissues in animals? n What is the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of an endotherm? n What is the standard metabolic rate (SMR) of an ectotherm? n How do different body plans allow contact with the environment? n

Points to Know: What is negative feedback? n What is positive feedback? n

Chapter 41 - Main Concepts Diets and feeding mechanisms vary extensively among animals. n Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination are the four main stages of food processing. n Digestion occurs in food vacuoles, gastrovascular cavities, and alimentary canals. n

Main Concepts A tour of the mammalian digestive system. n Vertebrate digestive systems exhibit many evolutionary adaptations associated with diet. n An adequate diet provides fuel, carbon skeletons for biosynthesis and essential nutrients. n

Points to Know: What are herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and suspensioin-feeders? n Trace the movement of food through a mammalian digestive system giving all organs, their function and relevant enzymes. (ex. pepsin, pancreatic juices etc. ) n How are symbiotic bacteria and protozoa important to digestion? n

Points to Know: How is food used as “fuel”? n How is food used for biosynthesis? n What are the essential nutrients? n What are some of the water-soluble vitamins? n What are some of the fat-soluble vitamins? n What are the mineral requirements of humans? n

Chapter 42 - Main Concepts Transport systems functionally connect body cells with the organs of exchange n Most invertebrates have a gastrovascular cavity or a circulatory system for internal transport n Diverse adaptations of a cardiovascular system have evolved in vertebrates. n

Main Concepts Rhythmic pumping of the mammalian heart drives blood through pulmonary and systemic circuits. n The lymphatic system returns fluid to the blood and aids in body defense. n Blood is a connective tissue with cells suspended in plasma. n

Main Concepts Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in the United States and many other developed nations. n Gas exchange supplies oxygen for cellular respiration and disposes of carbon dioxide. n Gills are respiratory adaptations of most aquatic animals. n

Main Concepts Tracheae are respiratory adaptations of insects. n Lungs are the respiratory adaptations of most terrestrial vertebrates. n

Points to Know: What is a closed or open circulatory system? n What are veins, arteries and capillaries? n What are the chambers and valves of a vertebrate heart? n What is the pathway of blood as it travels through the body? n What are the components of blood? n

Points to Know: What is the relationship between the respiratory medium and the respiratory surface? n What is countercurrent exchange? n How is oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged in the lungs? n What are the oxygen dissociation curves for hemoglobin? n What is myoglobin? n

Chapter 43 - Main Concepts Nonspecific mechanisms provide general barriers to infection. n Clonal selection of lymphocytes is the cellular basis for immunological specificity and diversity. n Memory cells function in secondary immune responses. n

Main Concepts: Molecular markers on cell surfaces function in self/other recognition. n In the humoral response, B cells defend against pathogens in body fluids by generating specific antibodies. n In the cell-mediated response, T cells defend against intracellular pathogens. n

Main Concepts: Complement proteins participate in both nonspecific and specific defenses. n The immune system’s capacity to distinguish self from other is critical in transfusions and organ transplants. n Abnormal immune function leads to disease states. n Invertebrates have a rudimentary immune system. n

Points to Know: How do the skin and mucous membranes project the body? n What is an antigen and an antibody? n What is humoral immunity and cellmediated immunity? n What is the structure of an antibody? n How do complement proteins work? n

Points to Know: What is the Rh factor and why can it be a problem in pregnancy? n How does HIV cause AIDS? n

Chapter 44 - Main Concepts Cells require a balance between water uptake and loss. n Osmoregulation depends on transport epithelia. n Tubular systems function in osmoregulation and excretion in many invertebrates. n The kidneys of vertebrates are compact organs with many excretory tubules. n

Main Concepts: The kidney’s transport epithelia regulate the composition of blood. n The water-conserving ability of the kidney is a key terrestrial adaptation. n An animal’s nitrogenous wastes are correlated with its phylogeny and habitat. n Thermoregulation maintains body temperature within a range conducive to metabolism. n

Main Concepts: Ectotherms derive body heat mainly from their surroundings and endotherms derive it mainly from metabolism. n Thermoregulation involves physiological and behavioral adjustments. n Regulatory systems interact in the maintenance of homeostasis. n

Points to Know: How does osmoregulation in marine and fresh-water fish compare? n What are protonephridria and metanephridria? n What are Malpighian tubules? n What are the parts of a nephron and how does it filter blood? n

Points to Know: What materials are filtered by the kidney and what materials are not? n What are examples of animals that excrete ammonia, urea, and uric acid? n What are endotherms and ectotherms? n How do countercurrent heat exchangers work? n What are some feedback mechanisms in thermoregulation? n

Chapter 45 - Main Concepts Hormone binding to specific receptors triggers signaling mechanisms at the cellular level. n Many chemical signals are relayed and amplified by second messengers and protein kinases. n Invertebrate control systems often integrate endocrine and nervous system functions. n

Main Concepts: The hypothalamus and pituitary integrate many functions of the vertebrate endocrine system. n The vertebrate endocrine system coordinates homeostasis and regulates growth, development, and reproduction. n The endocrine system and the nervous system are structurally, chemically and functionally related. n

Points to Know: What are hormones? n How do steroid hormones cause gene expression? n What are some hormones produced in the hypothalamus and pituitary glands and what do they do? n

Points to Know: How does the body regulate glucose levels through insulin and glucagon. n What is the “fight or flight” syndrome? n How are the endocrine and nervous systems structurally, chemically and functionally related? n

Chapter 46 - Main Concepts Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom. n In sexual reproduction, gametes unite in the external environment or within the female. n Human reproduction involves intricate anatomy and complex behavior n Spermatogensis and oogensis both involve meiosis, but differ in 3 significant ways. n

Main Concepts: A complex interplay of hormones regulates reproduction. n Embryonic and fetal development occur during pregnancy in humans and other placental mammals. n Contraception prevents pregnancy. n New technologies offer help for reproductive problems. n

Points to Know: What are the types of asexual reproduction and under what conditions is it an advantage? n Which animals have external fertilization and which have internal? n How do spermatogenesis and oogenesis differ in humans? n

Points to Know: How do hormones control the female menstrual cycle? n What hormones are involved in pregnancy? n How do the various methods of contrception prevent pregnancy? n

Chapter 47 - Main Concepts Fertilization activates the egg and brings together the sperm and egg nuclei. n Cleavage partitions the zygote into many smaller cells. n The organs of the body form from the three embryonic germ layers. n Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and adhesion. n

Main Concepts n Inductive signals drive differentiation and pattern formation in vertebrates.

Points to Know: How eggs prevent polyspermy. n The three tissues or embryonic germ layers that organs will develop from. n An example of organizer regions in vertebrate limb development. n

Chapter 48 - Main Concepts The nervous system is composed of neurons and supporting cells. n Membrane potentials arise from differences in ion concentrations between a cell’s contents and the extracellular fluid. n Chemical or electrical communication between cells occurs at synapses. n

Main Concepts The vertebrate brain develops from three anterior bulges of the spinal cord. n The cerebellum controls movement and balance. n The cerebrum contains the most sophisticated integrating centers. n

Points to Know: How nerve signals are generated and transmitted. n How nerve signals jump across a synapse. n How the human nervous system is organized. n What are the parts of the brain and what do they control? n

Chapter 49 - Main Concepts Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the nervous system. n Sensory receptors are categorized by the type of energy they transduce. n The light-absorbing pigment rhodopsin operates via signal transduction. n

Main Concepts The mammalian hearing organ is within the inner ear. n Most invertebrates have gravity sensors and are sound sensitive. n Perceptions of taste and smell are usually interrelated. n Muscles move skeletal parts by contracting. n

Main Concepts Calcium ions and regulatory proteins control muscle contraction. n Interactions between myosin and actin underlie muscle contractions. n

Points to Know: What are the main sense receptors in humans and how do they work? n How do muscles contract? n What are the various muscle types and where are they found in the body? n