Chapter 4 Society 1 Society Terms n n

Chapter 4 – Society 1

Society Terms n n n Society: people who interact within a defined territory who share a common culture. Status: a social identity (ex: mother, student, girlfriend, athlete, etc) n Ascribed status: a social identity that is beyond the control of an individual, such as the race, sex, age aspects of our identity. n Achieved status: a status that an individual has control over or that we choose to acquire, such as that of being a college student. Group: collection of individuals who share expectations about each other’s behavior. n Primary group: small, intimate, emotional, lasting (ex: family, friends). n Secondary group: formal, impersonal, task-oriented (ex: a committee or a large scale bureaucracy). 2

Four examinations of society n 1. Gerhard Lenski: society and technology. n n 2. Karl Marx: society and social conflict. n n Focus: inequality and the unequal distribution of material goods. 3. Max Weber: society and rationalization. n n Focus: societal changes due to technological development. Focus: effects of modern bureaucracy. 4. Emile Durkheim: society and function. n Focus: changing patterns of social solidarity. 3

1. Gerhard Lenski n Sociocultural evolution: the process of change resulting from new technologies. Lenski examines how societies change as their technologies improve. n Societies with simple technologies can only support a small population – therefore their way of life is relatively simple. n Societies with complex technologies can support large populations – therefore their way of life is more diverse, complex, and ever-changing. n 4

Five Basic Types of Societies (Lenski) 1. Hunting and Gathering n 2. Horticultural and pastoral n 3. Agrarian n 4. Industrial n 5. Post-industrial n 5

Hunting and Gathering Societies n n n n Use of simple tools to hunt animals and gather vegetation. n Simple weapons: spear, arrow, stone knife. Emerged about 3 million years ago. They were the dominant type of society until 12, 000 years ago. Today, only a few remain (ex Pygmies). They spend most of the day trying to find food – unless the environment is lush, whereupon they have lots of leisure time. Frequently nomadic. They rarely form permanent settlements. Small in size. Typically 25 -40 people per village. Few statuses: gender and age statuses, shaman, warrior/hunter. Where women gather or have productive economic roles, they are equal to men. Indeed, all members are relatively equal to each other. Very unstable due to natural forces and foreign invaders. 6

Horticultural and Pastoral Societies n Horticultural: farmers who use hand tools like a hoe and plant seeds. n n Pastoral: domesticated animals. n n n Typically nomadic. Emerged 12, 000 years ago. More material surplus brought a more complex society n n n Settlements emerged, but they were not that permanent. Allowed village size to increase to the hundreds, or more. Allowed new statuses to emerge. With more statuses, a bit more inequality and conflict. 7

Agrarian Societies n n n Large-scale cultivation using animal-drawn plows, perfection of the wheel, etc. Emerged about 5000 years ago. Large amount of surplus resources allowed… n n First permanent settlements – cities. n Now, as much as 30% of the population could be urban while most of the rest are farmers and small town tradespeople. Greater specialization of statuses – many more social identities available. Institutions are increasingly differentiated. Empires emerged to spread their influence across the globe. Extreme inequality, with lots of slavery, as monarchies emerged. 8

Industrial Societies n These societies produce goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery. n n The steam engine revolutionized production, followed by complexfuel engines. Began about 1750; industrial technology gave people great power over the environment, stirring rapid social changes. n n n n Rise of industrial factories shifted life away from family. Increased bureaucracy altered social life. Highly differentiated institutions. Very specialized statuses. Allowed massive urbanization, with up to 70% of the population becoming urban (but loss of self-sufficiency). Lots of mobility (but loss of small town community). Greater access to knowledge with a slight decrease in inequality. Massive problems too: pollution, alienation, overcrowding, etc. 9

Post-Industrial Societies Post-industrial societies are essentially industrial societies that have moved toward computers. n A post-industrial society uses technology that supports an information-based economy. n n Computers (and the Internet) allow information to be applied better. Since the 1950 s, blue collar jobs have been giving way to white collar jobs. n The new emphasis is on specialized education in a global information network. n 10

Lenski summary n As technologies get more complex, societies become more complex. Larger populations n More urban n More institutional differentiation n More statuses n More specialization of statuses n More globalization n More knowledge n More rapid change n More potential to reduce inequality (with indus. Societies) n 11

2. Karl Marx: Society and Conflict n Marx’s basic point: Inequality leads to oppression of the have-nots by the haves, and this is morally wrong. n The solution is to bring about equality – by revolution if necessary – in order to achieve a fair and just society. 12

Karl Marx n Marx was concerned about the growing inequality that characterized newly industrial societies. n n n Social conflict arises when different segments of society compete over valued resources. The most significant resources are economic – the material goods that a society produces. n n The factory brought concentrated private power in the hands of the few under capitalism. Hence, Marx focused mostly on industrial factories. Those who owned factories were a tiny group that Marx called bourgeoisie capitalists. n Their goal was private profit – at the expense of the public interest, said Marx. 13

Karl Marx The owners of the factories were bourgeoisie capitalists. But most people did not own factories – they worked in them. Marx called these industrial workers the proletariat. n The capitalists (the haves) oppressed the proletariat (the have-nots), creating tensions and conflicts in an unjust economic system that exploited workers while creating huge profits for the capitalists. n 14

Marx – economic determinist To Marx, those who owned the factories – the economic sector - also had the power to shape the policies of government, schools, religion, and other key social institutions. n Thus, each social institution reinforced the control of society by the economic sector – the wealthy capitalists. n n Example: Marx argued that religion was the opiate of the masses because the Church reinforced a message of obedience to authority (capitalists). n In other words, the Church promoted false consciousness. 15

False Consciousness n When an oppressed group accepts the dominant ideology of their oppressor, they are in a state of false consciousness. n Rather than blame the economic system, problems are linked to the shortcomings of individuals themselves, to fate or God - anything BUT the economic system of industrial capitalism. The result is that the validity of the economic system is not challenged. n False consciousness is promoted by capitalists and the institutions they influence. n 16

Class consciousness As long as the oppressed are in a state of false consciousness they will not challenge or change the system that oppresses them. For change to occur, the oppressed must develop a sense of class consciousness. n Class consciousness refers to a sense that the system itself has oppressed the have-nots, not their so-called individual deficiencies, or fate, or God. n When the have-nots have class consciousness they get angry at the system and challenge its validity. n 17

Karl Marx n At the heart of Marx’s ideas is the notion of social class. Industrial capitalism breeds two basic social classes: bourgeoisie capitalists versus the proletariat. Capitalists: the few, the owners, the order-givers, the source of dominant ideologies that promote false consciousness. n Proletariat: the many, the workers, the order-takers, the victims of false consciousness. n n As long as they are in a state of false consciousness, they are passive and obedient to the wealthy capitalists. n But if they acquire class consciousness, they will rise up and take action to overthrow their oppressors and establish a more egalitarian system. 18

Karl Marx’s ideal system n Marx sought the overthrow of capitalism, to be replaced by democratic socialism (what Marx called communism – but do not confuse this with Lenin or Stalin’s authoritarian communism). n n In democratic socialism, workers themselves would jointly own the factory, and all profits would be equally shared among the workers. n Decisions would be democratically arrived at by workers voting for various workplace policies. Marx valued equality with democracy, and felt all factories should be held to these high standards. n He argued that early hunting and gathering societies practiced something close to communism. 19

Capitalism and Alienation refers to a sense of powerlessness. n Marx argued that jobs in capitalist factories became de-humanized and workers felt little satisfaction with their labor. n There are four ways that capitalism alienates: n 1. From the act of working – being denied a voice. n 2. From the products of work – they don’t belong to workers. n 3. From other workers – workers are made to compete with against each other. n 4. From humanity – alienated from reaching their human potential because work is no longer fulfilling. n 20

Capitalism – Adam Smith v Karl Marx n Adam Smith – The Wealth of Nations, 1776 Advocated competition for private profit in a free market. It serves the public interest via innovation and invention. n Smith presumed a free market - a level playing field with lots of competition. He did not support the oligopoly -style corporate capitalism that is so common today. n n Karl Marx – Das Kapital, 1847 Critical of capitalism and its emphasis on self-interested private profit because it promotes personal greed at the expense of the public interest. n Industrial capitalism led to exploitation of the working class out of the self interest of the rich, and the resulting economic inequality is unjust and harmful to society. n 21

Max Weber: the Rationalization of Society n n n While Marx was interested in how the economic system influences society, Weber was interested in how modern society affects our minds. He was specifically interested in the increased rationality of modern life. Rationality: logical systematic thinking to achieve efficient behavior. Instrumental (task oriented) behavior is emphasized over expressive behavior (aesthetic oriented). Rationalization: the replacement of traditional forms of social interaction, based on informality, emotionality, and spontaneity, with modern interaction based on formalized rules and regulations and the values of efficiency and predictability. 22

n Rationality and Industrial Capitalism To Weber, pre-industrial societies emphasize tradition and primary-group interaction as the basis of everyday life. n n Traditional social interaction is informal, spontaneous, and emotionalized. It occurs almost entirely among friends and family. It is deep and meaningful. Industrial societies are different – they emphasize rationality. Outside of the family, social interaction is typically secondary-group based, emphasizing deliberate, calculated, efficient behaviors designed to accomplish a goal. n School, government, health care, and other institutional behaviors are guided by formal rules and regulations that encourage efficiency. n So also does industrial capitalism operate under the force of 23 rationality. Work life has become rationalized.

Modern Life is Rationalized While rationality has its strengths, Weber argued that modern life was becoming overly rationalized. n Modern social interaction is dictated by rules and regulations, norms of efficiency, and by formal secondary group interaction. This leaves little room for human spontaneity or creativity. n In essence, we are becoming de-humanized by the force of rationalization. n 24

The Roots of Rationality n n n Weber argued that industrial capitalism promotes rationality out of the desire to maximize profits, and this rationality emphasis has spread across other institutions. To Weber, rationality was rooted in religious changes that helped bring about the rational-capitalist mindset. Calvinism – a type of Protestantism that emphasizes the doctrine of predestination. John Calvin (1509 -1564) claimed that God selects some people for salvation and others for Hell even before birth. How could one know whether God had selected them for Heaven or Hell? By whether they prospered in this world. n Calvinists were driven to strive to be prosperous. They developed rational discipline and a hard work ethic for this reason. 25

Capitalism from Calvinism n Calvinists learned to be thrifty – and rational – and they became the first true capitalists. The roots of capitalism are in the pursuit of private wealth – especially by re-investing profits to make even more wealth. n Calvinists were different from other religions. Other religions focused on accepting one’s lot on this earth and looked for salvation in the afterlife. One’s material wealth did not matter. To Calvinists, one’s material wealth DID matter. Hence their drive for material success. 26

Weber: The Power of Ideas The Protestant work ethic (by Calvinists) ultimately became ingrained in the larger culture. n Weber’s study of Calvinism and capitalism provides evidence of the power of ideas in shaping a society and its institutions. n Whereas Marx wrote of the power of economic forces, Weber wrote of the power of ideas (idealism) in shaping society. n n Weber’s ideas led to great interest in subjective reality and in verstehen as a tool to understand social interaction. 27

How does Rationality Shape Modern Life? n 1. Institutional differentiation. New institutions are more formal and rationalized. n 2. Specialization. Specialized, formal job statuses and roles are highly rational and efficient. They are guided by formal rules and regulations. n 3. Impersonality. Much social interaction is within secondary groups where personal feelings are de-valued. n n 4. Large scale organizations. Increased bureaucracy. 5. Time is re-conceptualized. Time becomes something to be logically measured off, systematic and rational. n 6. Self-discipline. The emphasis on self-discipline reflects new values linked to rationality and efficiency. n 7. Technical competence. Emphasis on technical competence 28 over

Rationality and Formal Organizations n A formal organization is a social structure where interaction is task-oriented, formalized and guided by formal rules and regulations. n n In formal organizations, rights and responsibilities are attached to formal statuses – not to the individual. Any individual is easily replaceable. The bureaucracy is a large-scale formal organization that is hierarchically structured in a top-down way. Power is concentrated at the top. 29

Bureaucracy Bureaucracies are designed to achieve goals rationally and efficiently. Each status/role has a specialized, formal function. n The bureaucratic worker is a technocrat. They behave impersonally in structured, predictable ways in order to maximize efficiency and output. n n n Spontaneous, emotionalized behavior is discouraged. To Weber bureaucracies, while useful, breed alienation. 30

Rationality and Alienation n To Marx, alienation is the powerlessness that is due to economic forces that cause oppression of the have-nots. To Weber, alienation is the powerlessness that is due to institutions that have been over-rationalized and dehumanized, reducing the human into being merely a “cog” in the machine. Weber was critical of modern bureaucratic societies because the quality of work life, school life, and other interaction that has been rationalized suffers. Bureaucracies, while highly productive, breed alienation. n Overly-rationalized jobs become assembly-line jobs that are dull, routine, boring and repetitive. They are “Mc. Jobs. ” The human worker is “trapped in the iron cage” of bureaucracy. 31

Emile Durkheim: Society and Function n Durkheim is one of the founders of structural functionalism. To Durkheim, the institutions we create are powerful forces that cannot be reduced to the micro behavior of individuals. The sum is greater than the parts. Social facts: any part of society that exists apart from the individual and therefore may be an external influence upon the individual. n Social norms, values, and institutions operate as social facts, and they have functions that help preserve the larger social structure. 32

Durkheim: Anomie n Society regulates individuals. The individual is socialized into existing social facts (beliefs and norms) and develops a personality consistent with societal expectations. n n When all individuals share the same norms and values, society has provided effective moral guidance and will operate smoothly. However, some forces disrupt this regulatory system, like individualism and rapid social changes from industrialization. n When this occurs, levels of anomie increase and society provides less moral guidance for people. 33

Durkheim: Solidarity n Traditional societies have high levels of mechanical solidarity: social bonds based on shared morals, shared values, shared norms, and social likeness. n n n Example: the mythical town of Andy Griffith’s Mayberry. Modern society, with its individualism and rapid changes, leads to a decrease in mechanical solidarity. Organic solidarity takes the place of mechanical solidarity. Organic solidarity: social bonds based on specialization dependencies. Modern societies have a complex division of labor in which institutions are differentiated and we become specialists who need each other to complete the task of living. n We no longer share common values and morals, but we still need each other to survive. Example: the TV show Scrubs features individuals with different value systems, but who are specialists 34

Durkheim The transformation from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity means that modern societies will have higher crime and anomie levels and will struggle with the absence of consensus. n However, they will be highly productive and will learn to tolerate value differences in this age of specialization and institutional differentiation. n 35

End of Chapter 4 36