Chapter 4 Our Gendered Identities Chapter Outline Gendered

Chapter 4 Our Gendered Identities

Chapter Outline § § Gendered Identities Gender Inequality Gender and Socialization Social Change and Gender

Gender and Sex § § § Sex is used in reference to male or female anatomy and physiology, and includes the chromosomal, hormonal, and anatomical components of males and females. Gender (or gender role) refers to societal attitudes and behaviors associated with the two sexes. Gender identity refers to the degree to which an individual sees herself or himself as feminine or masculine based on society’s definitions of gender roles.

Issues for Thought: “Wife” Socialization and the Heterosexual Wedding § § Think about the ways you have been socialized into a particular gender role. What household chores were you assigned when younger? Were those different from those of your siblings or friends of the opposite sex? Did those prepare you for any particular adult roles?

Sexism § § Traditional sexism is the belief that women’s roles should be confined to the family and that women are not as fit as men for certain tasks or for leadership positions. Modern sexism denies that gender discrimination persists and includes the belief that women are asking for too much—a situation that results in resistance to women’s demands.

Issues for Thought: Challenges to Gender Boundaries § § § Between 1 and 4% of live births are intersexual. § The child has anatomical, chromosomal, or hormonal variations from the male or female biology that is considered normal. Transsexuals are raised as one sex, while emotionally identifying with the other sex. Transgendered describes an identity adopted by those who are uncomfortable in the gender of their birth.

Issues for Thought: Challenges to Gender Boundaries § § § Have transgendered individuals been politically visible in your campus or community? What are your own thoughts as to whether gender is a dichotomy or a continuum along which individuals may vary? How do such challenges to gender boundaries potentially impact our roles and experiences within the family?

Gender Character Traits § § Masculine people are often thought to have instrumental (or agentic) character traits – confidence, assertiveness, and ambition – that enable them to accomplish difficult tasks or goals. Feminine people are thought to embody expressive (or communal) character traits – warmth, sensitivity, the ability to express tender feelings, and placing concern about others’ above self-interest.

Cultural Messages: Masculinities 1. 2. 3. Men are expected to distance themselves from anything considered feminine. A man should be financially successful, or at least be working to support his family. During the 1980 s, a new cultural message emerged that a man should be emotionally sensitive and expressive, valuing tenderness and equal relationships with women.

Nontraditional Occupations § More and more women are entering nontraditional occupations such as the military.

Cultural Messages: Femininities § § § The pivotal expectation for a woman requires her to offer emotional support. The ideal woman was physically attractive, not too competitive, a good listener, and adaptable. She was considered fortunate if she had a man in her life and was expected to be a good mother and put her family’s and children’s needs before her own.

New Cultural Models for Women § § § The professional woman: independent, ambitious, self confident The superwoman: A good wife and/or mother attains career success and supports her children by herself The satisfied single: a woman (heterosexual or lesbian, employed, possibly a parent) who is happy and not in a serious relationship with a male

Gender Expectations and Diversity § Stereotypes include: § “strong black woman”…cultural messages ranging from bitches and bad (black) mothers to modern mammies…extremely educated or a high school dropout, ambitious or listless, sexy or ugly § Latinas and Asian women as being more submissive § Latino men as patriarchal

To what extent do women and men follow cultural expectations? § § § In adult life, women seem to have greater connectedness in interpersonal relations and, perhaps due to gender stereotypes, are pushed into caregiving professions. Men tend to be more socially dominate, competitive, and achievement-oriented. But there is great individual variation; situational context accounts for much of the difference.

Traits in Men and Women § How females and males differ on height, conceptualized as overlapping normal distribution curves.

Gender Similarities Hypothesis § § Developed by Psychologist Janet Hyde, the hypothesis holds that males and females are similar on most psychological variables. Hyde found virtually no difference on most traits, a few moderate differences, and very few large differences.

Gender Similarities Hypothesis Hyde found evidence of gender differences in: 1. Motor performance, especially in throwing distance and speed. 2. Sexuality, especially male’s greater incidence of masturbation and acceptance of casual sex. 3. Physical aggressiveness.

Gender Inequality § § § A situation in which males assume authority over the female. On the societal level, male dominance is the assignment to men of greater control and influence over society’s institutions. There are no known societies where women dominate men.

Male Dominance In Politics § § § Before 1992, there had never been more than two women among our 100 U. S. senators. As of 2009, in the U. S. Congress, there were 17 women in the Senate and 76 in the House of Representatives Surveys report that 71% of the public say they would be willing to vote for a woman for president, but only 56% believe their family, friends, and coworkers are willing to do so.

Women in Politics § § Nancy Pelosi attained the political post of Speaker of the House of Representatives in 2007. Although the number of female senators and members of the House of Representatives has increased, women remain a minority in positions of political power.

Male Dominance In Religion § § § Most U. S. congregations have more female than male participants, yet men hold more positions of authority. Women are prohibited from holding Catholic clerical or lay deacon positions. A majority of U. S. Catholic laypeople and theologians believe the Catholic church should ordain women priests. The Vatican disagrees.

Gender and Health § § § Male infants have higher rates of infant mortality and adverse conditions. In the United States, around 105 boys are born for every 100 girls, with boys outnumbering girls under age eighteen. Life expectancy for the total population reached 77. 7 years in 2006— 80. 2 years for females and 75. 1 years for males, a difference of 5. 1 years

Life Expectancy, United States, 1975– 2020

Gender and Education § § Women have been the majority of college students since 1979 and now surpass men in the proportion of the total population that are college graduates. In 2007, women earned 57% of bachelor’s degrees, 60. 5% of master’s degrees, 50% of first professional degrees, and 50% of doctorates.

Gender and Education § § The changing gender balance in education has led to cries of alarm that men/boys are disadvantaged by educational systems. However the data have made visible two patterns: § § College achievement gap is greater among racial/ethnic groups within gender categories Apparent difference between males and females in goals and attitudes toward schooling

Male Dominance in The Economy § § In 2008, women who were employed full time earned 80% of what men earned. Even in same occupational categories, women earn less than men: § § In 2008, women CEOs earned $83, 356 versus male CEOS, who earned $103, 948 on average. Overall, the earnings gap between men and women narrowed in recent decades, but that gap is widening slightly again.

Female-to-Male Earnings Ratio

Is Anatomy Destiny? § Is male dominance anchored in biology? § Biologists have relinquished deterministic models in their thinking about gender and family. § Sociologists are finding complex interactions among gender, social roles, and biological indicators rather than categorical gender differences.

Is Anatomy Destiny? § § It is safe to say that there is convergence on the opinion that in gender, as well as other behavior, biology interacts with culture in complex and constantly changing ways that cannot be reduced to biological determinism. Although adult men and women seem to be converging in social roles and personal qualities, gender differences seem powerful in younger years via the process of socialization.

Theories of Socialization § Socialization Process by which people develop their human capacities and acquire a unique personality and identity and by which culture is passed from generation to generation

Gender Roles § § Children learn much about gender roles from their parents, whether they are taught consciously or unconsciously. Parents model roles and reinforce expectations of appropriate behavior.

Theories of Socialization § § Social Learning Theory § Children learn gender roles as they are taught by parents, schools, and the media. Self-identification theory § Children categorize themselves by age 3 and identify behaviors in their families, the media, and elsewhere that are appropriate to their sex and adopt these behaviors.

Theories of Socialization § § Gender Schema Theory § Children develop a frame of knowledge about what girls and boys typically do, and then use this framework to interpret and think about gender. Symbolic Interaction Theory § Children develop self-concepts based on social feedback: the looking-glass self. Also important is their role-taking, as they play out roles in interaction with significant others such as parents and peers.

Settings for Socialization § § Boys and Girls in the Family Play and Games The Power of Cultural Images Socialization in Schools

Boys and Girls in the Family § Encouragement of gender-typed interests and activities continues: § § Girls have more dolls, fictional characters, children’s furniture, and the color pink. Boys have more sports equipment, tools, toy vehicles, and the colors red, blue, and white.

Boys and Girls in the Family § Encouragement of gender-typed interests and activities continues: § § Fathers more than mothers enforce gender stereotypes, especially for sons. It is more acceptable, for example, for girls to be tomboys. Exploratory behavior is encouraged more in boys than in girls. Household chores (number and kinds) adhere to gendered notions. However, this varies by race/ethnicity. For example, African American girls are raised to be more independent and less passive.

Play and Games § § Toys send messages about gender roles. What does this toy say?

Play and Games § Play is a significant vehicle through which children develop appropriate concepts of adult roles, as well as images of themselves. § § Girls play in one-to-one relationships or in small groups that are relatively cooperative and have few rules. Boys play in large groups, characterized by more fighting and attempts to effect a hierarchical pecking order.

The Power of Cultural Messages § § Media images often convey gender expectations, called media frames. Media frames guides us through what the subject is and what its meaningful qualities are. § § Females are likely to be shown trying to get a man’s attention, their physical appearance is often focused upon, and they can be the object of hate (misogynistic images). Males are more likely to be depicted in dominant, agentic roles, and as the authoritative narrative or voiceover, even when the products are aimed at women.

Socialization in Schools § § § More men are in positions of authority (principals) and women are in positions of service (teachers and secretaries). Teachers pay more attention to males than to females. Males tend to dominate learning environments from nursery school to college.

SAT Score by Family Income, 2009

Social Change and Gender § Changes in men’s and women’s social roles have been influenced by changes in structural forces and by active change efforts. § The Women’s Movement § The Men’s Movement

Social Change and Gender § The Women’s Movement § § § The 19 th century saw a feminist movement develop, but from 1920 until the mid-1960 s, there was virtually no activism regarding women’s rights and roles. The Civil Rights Movement provided a model by which the Second Wave of the Women’s Movement challenged accepted traditional roles and strove to increase gender equality. Some women of color and white working-class women find the Women’s Movement irrelevant to their personal and social struggles and experiences.

Women’s Movement Issues

Ethnicity and Gender § Native Americans, members of what were once hunting and gathering and hoe cultures, have a complex heritage that varies by tribe but may include a matrilineal tradition in which women owned houses, tools, and land.

Social Change and Gender § Men’s Movements § § As the Women’s Movement encouraged changes in gender expectations and social roles, some men responded by initiating a men’s movement. The first National Conference on Men and Masculinity was held in 1975. Focus is on changes that men want in their lives and how best to get them One goal has been to give men a forum in which to air their feelings about gender.

Social Change and Gender § Men’s Movements § § § Antifeminists believe that the Women’s Movement caused the collapse of the natural order, one that guaranteed male dominance, and they work to reverse this trend. Profeminists support feminists in their opposition to patriarchy. Masculinists tend not to focus on patriarchy as problematic, but work to develop a positive image of masculinity, one combining strength with tenderness.

Personal and Family Change § Sometimes in response to increased and available options, individuals reconsider earlier choices regarding gender roles. § Additionally, increased opportunities may lead to mixed feelings and conflicts, both within oneself and between men and women.

The Future of Gender § Gender identity will remain important, as it continues to change in response to social forces and events. § Some argue that maintaining traditional gender roles will be supported and encouraged, while others argue that gender inequality will be swept aside.

Quick Quiz

1. Jack believes that a woman’s “place” is in the home. Jack’s point of view is an illustration of _____ sexism. a) modern b) neo c) traditional d) post-modern

Answer: c § Jack believes that a woman’s “place” is in the home. Jack’s point of view is an illustration of traditional sexism.

2. Consider the statement: “Discrimination against women in the labor force is no longer a problem. ” This reflects _____ sexism. a) neo b) modern c) traditional d) post-modern

Answer: b § The statement: “Discrimination against women in the labor force is no longer a problem. ” This reflects modern sexism.

3. In which of the following religious categories are women prohibited from holding positions? a) the pastorate within Protestant Christian churches b) rabbis in Reform Jewish congregations c) feminist evangelicals d) Catholic clerical or lay deacon

Answer: d § Women are prohibited from holding positions in the Catholic clerical or lay deacon.

4. Biological theories of gender difference were initially offered by a) biologists. b) primatologists. c) zoologists. d) Geneticists

Answer: b § Biological theories of gender difference were initially offered by primatologists.