Chapter 4 Early Childhood Lifespan Development A Psychological

Chapter 4: Early Childhood Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective By Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French (Published

In this chapter: Physical development � Growth, motor skills, toilet training, nutrition Cognitive development � Theories of development, theory of mind, language, education Psychosocial development � Erikson’s theory, self-understanding, family relationships, play, morality

Learning objectives: Physical development in early childhood Summarize the overall physical growth Describe the changes in brain maturation Describe the changes in sleep Summarize the changes in gross and motor skills Describe when a child is ready for toilet training Describe sexual development Identify nutritional concerns

Physical growth Average 2 year-old weighs 23 -28 pounds and is 3335 inches tall From 2 -6 years grow about 3 inches in height and gain 4 -5 pounds each year Slower growth rate than in infancy Appetite decreases from ages 2 -6

Brain development in childhood: Brain weight Brain is 75% of adult weight by age 3, 95% by age 6 Growth caused by: � Myelination � Development of dendrites

Brain development in infancy: Brain growth Prefrontal cortex – Improvements in attention, planning, inhibition Hemispheres grow during childhood � Left – Improvements in language � Right – Improvements in spatial skills Corpus callosum connects hemispheres � Improved coordination/communication Neuroplasticity – Brain’s ability to change structure and function in response to experience or damage

Figure 4. 2 Corpus callosum

Motor skill development in early childhood Acquire basic gross motor skills � Locomotion – Running, jumping, skipping � Object control – Throwing, catching, kicking

Motor skill development in early childhood (continued) Refine motor skills – Buttoning, using utensils, drawing � Can draw recognizable shapes by age 4 -5 � “Tadpoles” (age 3) common crossculturally

Toilet training 98% of children toilet trained by age 3 � Physical/emotional readiness important � Daytime control develops first Elimination disorders � Enuresis (urine) � Encopresis (feces) � Both can be involuntary or intentional

Sleep needs typically decline age 2 -6 Poor sleep associated with cognitive and attention problems � Sometimes misdiagnosed as ADHD

Figure 4. 6 Sleep recommendations

Sexual development in early childhood Sexual arousal does not indicate sexual desire Erections or vaginal lubrication may occur in infants Self-stimulation and curiosity common in young children � May indicate problem but may also be normal � Parental responses may affect later attitudes/behavior

Nutritional issues Young children like routine and predictability � Reluctance to try new foods � Preference for limited range of foods Taste preferences established in early childhood � Setting good habits now is important Avoid power struggles, bribing, shortorder cooking

Learning objectives: Cognitive development in early childhood Describe Piaget’s preoperational stage and the characteristics of preoperational thought Summarize the challenges to Piaget’s theory Describe Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development Describe information processing research on attention and memory Describe the views of the neo-Piagetians Describe theory-theory and the development of theory of mind Describe the developmental changes in language Describe the various types of early childhood education Describe the characteristics of autism

Piaget’s preoperational stage Use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas Operation – Logical manipulation of information Symbolic function substage (2 -4 years) � Mentally represent an object that is not present � Rely on perception in problem solving Intuitive thought substage (4 -7 years) � Greater dependence on intuitive thinking � Use immature reasoning to understand world

Elements of preoperational thought Pretend play – Learn and represent learning Egocentrism – Belief that other people have same thoughts/perceptions they do Centration – Focusing on only one characteristic of an object to the exclusion of others � Classification errors Animism – Attributing life-like qualities to objects Transductive reasoning – Inferring connections between unrelated situations

Conservation Ability to recognize that moving or rearranging matter does not change the quantity Preoperational children can’t conserve � Centration – Focus on height of liquid in containers but fail to account for shape of container � Transductive reasoning – If they look different, they must be different � Unable to perform necessary operation (mentally reverse actions)

Figure 4. 10 Conservation of liquid

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development Cognitive development facilitated by: � Cultural products (language, writings, and concepts) � Social interactions with adults and more learned peers

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development (continued) Zone of proximal development – Tasks a child can’t do independently, but can do with support � Scaffolding – Temporary support given to do a task � Gradually decrease support as skills improve � Teachers should teach within child’s ZPD Piaget believed children should discover concepts on their own

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development (continued) Children talk to themselves to solve problems or clarify thoughts � Initially speak out loud, later use private (inner) speech Piaget believed this was egocentric

Attention Divided attention – Switch focus between tasks Selective attention – Focus on single task or stimulus Sustained attention – Stay on task for long periods of time All types improve with age Temperament may play a role

Memory Sensory memory (also called sensory register) Briefly stores sensory input in its raw form Short-term/working memory Where current conscious mental activity occurs Adults: 7 items, 5 -year-olds: 4 items Executive function – Self-regulatory processes (including use of memory strategies) Improvement caused by nature and nurture

Memory (continued) Long-term memory – Permanent � Declarative (Explicit) – Memories for facts or events that we can consciously recollect Semantic – Facts and knowledge not tied to a timeline Episodic – Tied to specific events in time � Nondeclarative (Implicit) – Automated skills that do not require conscious recollection

Figure 4. 14 Types of memory

Neo-Piagetians New interpretations of Piaget’s theory Similarities: Constructivism, qualitatively different stages with increasingly complex thinking Difference: Improvements in information processing increase complexity of thinking

Children’s understanding of the world Theory-theory – Children generate theories to explain experiences/concepts � May not be accurate

Children’s understanding of the world (continued) Theory of mind – Ability to consider others’ thoughts � Diverse-desires – People may have different desires � Diverse-beliefs – People may have different beliefs � Knowledge access – People may not have access to information � False belief – People may believe something not true � Hidden emotion – People may not express real feelings Crucial for social interaction

Figure 4. 17 False belief task

Table 4. 2 Components of theory of mind Component Diverse-desires Diverse-beliefs Description Understanding that two people may have different desires regarding the same object. Understanding that two people may hold different beliefs about an object. Knowledge access Understanding that people may or may (knowledge/ignorance) not have access to information. False belief Understanding that someone might hold a belief based on false information. Hidden emotion Understanding that people may not always express their true emotions.

Language development in early childhood Vocabulary growth – Learn 9000 words ages 2 -6 � Fast mapping – Learn new words quickly by connecting to familiar concepts Interpret figures of speech literally (“easy as pie”) Overregularization – Overuse of regular grammar rules (e. g. , “runned”, “gooses”) Adult interaction and input improves skills

Preschool NAEYC criteria include: � Curriculum supporting all aspects of learning and development � Assessing student progress � Promoting collaborations with families � Promoting children’s health and safety Head Start not shown to have long-lasting benefits � Difficulties studying this experimentally

Autism spectrum disorder Deficits in social interaction � Lack of theory of mind � Often avoid interacting with others Deficits in communication (verbal and nonverbal) � Parroted speech (echolalia) or limited speech Repetitive patterns of behavior or interests � Often adjust poorly to change � May include self-injurious behavior

Autism spectrum disorder (continued) Not the same as intellectual disability � Children with ASD may be hard to test Variation in skills and symptoms Affects 1 in 88 children (more common in boys) Cause unknown � Genetic factors (identical twin concordance rate 90%) � Environmental factors? (e. g. , pollution, chemicals) � Vaccines NOT linked to autism development

Learning objectives: Psychosocial development in early childhood Describe Erikson’s third stage of initiative vs. guilt Describe the changes in self-concept and self-esteem Describe children’s understanding of others Describe emotional regulation and delayed gratification Describe young children’s understanding of morality Summarize the main theories of gender development Describe the major parenting styles and their consequences for children Describe the role of siblings in children’s development Summarize the types of play in which children engage Describe the influence of the media on young children’s social development

Erikson: Initiative vs. guilt Initiative – Motivation to do things � Autonomy – Ability Caregivers should praise efforts Avoid harsh criticism

Self-concept and self-esteem Self-concept – Self-description in categories � Categorical self – External qualities (e. g. , physical descriptors, favorite activities/possessions) � With age, focus more on internal qualities Self-esteem – Evaluative judgment of self � Often positive in young children due to lack of comparison

Self-control Response initiation – Ability to delay action until you have evaluated all of the information Response inhibition – Ability to stop a behavior that has already begun Delayed gratification – Ability to hold out for a larger reward by forgoing a smaller immediate reward � Marshmallow test – Predicts good academic performance, health

Gender Socially constructed aspects of masculinity and femininity Gender identity – Sense of one’s own gender � Often occurs by 3 years old Gender roles – Expectations associated with gender � Affected by social and cultural messages Gender schemas – Conceptions of the attributes associated with maleness or femaleness

Gender (continued) Gender dysphoria – Distress caused by mismatch between gender identity and biological sex � Mismatch itself is not a disorder (American Psychiatric Association) Gender roles and stereotypes affect development � Beliefs about “acceptable” behaviors/qualities � Experience of sexual harassment, rape, income gap

Baumrind’s parenting styles Based on two dimensions � Control/expectations � Warmth/responsiveness Each dimension can be high or low

Baumrind’s parenting styles (continued) Authoritative – High control and high responsiveness � Emphasis on communication, appropriate negotiation � Associated with children’s competence and confidence Authoritarian – High control and low responsiveness � Parents may be overly strict and aloof � Children may fear rather than respect parents

Baumrind’s parenting styles (continued) Permissive – Low control and high responsiveness � Parents provide little structure and allow child to make the rules � Associated with insecurity, poor self-discipline Uninvolved – Low control and low responsiveness � Associated with worst outcomes for children

Table 4. 3 Comparison of four parenting styles

Parenting styles and culture Baumrind’s model assumes authoritative is best � Creates qualities valued in individualistic cultures � Creates qualities valued in middle-/upper-class SES Some groups value authoritarian parenting � Collectivistic – Obedience and compliance more valued � SES – Working-class jobs emphasize obedience and compliance; parents may encourage these qualities

Spanking Numerous studies indicate negative outcomes � More aggressive behavior � More likely to break rules � Lower vocabulary scores

Sibling relationships Important for social skills development � Empathy, sharing, cooperation � Negotiation and conflict resolution Quality of relationship affected by: � Quality of parent-child relationship � Emotional/behavioral characteristics of children � Age of children

Play Freud � Release pent-up emotions � Manage emotional distress in secure environment Vygotsky and Piaget � Develop abilities children’s intellectual

Parten’s classification system Unoccupied play – Children’s behavior seems random and goal-less Solitary play – Children play by themselves, different activities from others Onlooker play – Observing others playing without joining in Parallel play – Children play alongside each other, using similar toys, but do not directly interact Associative play – Children interact and share toys, but are not working toward a common goal Cooperative play - Children interact to achieve a common goal � May take on different tasks to reach that goal

Table 4. 4 Parten’s classification of types of play in preschool children Category Description Unoccupied Play Children’s behavior seems more random and without a specific goal. This is the least common form of play. Solitary Play Onlooker Play Parallel Play Associative Play Children play by themselves, do not interact with others, nor are they engaging in similar activities as the children around them. Children are observing other children playing. They may comment on the activities and even make suggestions, but will not directly join the play. Children play alongside each other, using similar toys, but do not directly act with each other. Children will interact with each other and share toys, but are not working toward a common goal. Cooperative Play Children are interacting to achieve a common goal. Children may take on different tasks to reach that goal.

Children and the media 2/3 of kids age 6 and under watch up to 2 hours of TV daily Screen time negatively affects development � Lower vocabulary scores � Less active, hands-on play � Associated with attention problems later

Child care Not associated with negative outcomes � But depends on quality of child care Teacher-child ratio Child-centered curriculum Knowledgeable staff � Also depends on family characteristics Parent SES Emotionally supportive home environment Cognitively enriched home environment

Child abuse and neglect Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act: � Any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation; or an act or failure to act, which presents an imminent risk of serious harm. Each state has own definition based on this Act

Child abuse and neglect (continued) Types of child maltreatment � Neglect – Most common � Physical abuse � Psychological maltreatment � Sexual abuse May occur separately or in combination

Child abuse statistics 2013: 3. 5 million referrals involving 6. 4 million children Infants under 1 year old most likely to be abused 2013: 1, 520 children died from abuse and neglect � 73. 9% were younger than 3 years old Victims most likely to be white (39. 3%) or African. American (33. 0%) 78. 9% of child fatalities caused by parents

Sexual abuse Sexual contact between child and adult or much older child � Incest – Sexual contact between family members Sexual abuse rates: 25% of girls, 10% of boys � Boys more likely abused by strangers, less likely to report Median age for sexual abuse is 8 or 9 years

Stress and child development Normal, everyday stress can help children build coping skills Long-lasting or extreme stress can affect: � Brain development in hippocampus and amygdala Affects memory abilities, emotional regulation � Immune system functioning � Ability to cope with future stress Supportive, caring adults are crucial