Chapter 30 The Turbulent Sixties Bridget Heist Kylie

Chapter 30 The Turbulent Sixties Bridget Heist Kylie Kratchwell Gianna Oldrati Ashley Basat

*Kennedy Intensifies the Cold War ➢Critical to John F. Kennedy’s victory in the election of 1960 was his success in televised debates against Richard Nixon ➢John F. Kennedy’s domestic program was known as the New Frontier ➢Priority was foreign policy in Southeast Asia, Berlin, Cuba, and Soviet Union ➢John F. Kennedy a “Cold Warrior” ➢Kennedy supported U. S. hard line against Russia

John F. Kennedy Richard Nixon

Flexible Response ➢Robert Mc. Namara was selected to serve as secretary of defense by John F. Kennedy ➢John F. Kennedy’s plan to balance out nuclear capability with conventional military strength was known as flexible response ➢Arms buildup: ○ Conventional armed forces ○ The nuclear arsenal ○ Special Forces ➢U. S. strength tempted new administration to challenge U. S. S. R.

Crisis over Berlin ➢The Soviet Union leader with whom both Dwight Eisenhower and John Kennedy had to deal was Nikita Khrushchev ➢ 1961: Khrushchev renews threat to kick America out of Berlin Germany ➢Kennedy’s response: ○ Announce crisis on nationwide television ○ Call up the National Guard ➢Soviets built Berlin Wall ➢Wall meant to keep East Germans from migrating to the West

Containment in Southeast Asia ➢Kennedy saw Southeast Asia as focus of U. S. -Soviet rivalry ○ Supported Saigon’s Diem regime ○ Increased American military “advisors” and money to Vietnam ➢November, 1963: Coup against Diem ○ Kennedy accepted ○ Coup further destabilized South Vietnam ➢U. S. involvement in Vietnam deepened

Containing Castro: The Bay of Pigs Fiasco ➢Kennedy supported “anti-Castro forces in exile” to thwart the aims of the Soviet Union and overthrow Fidal Castro ➢Bay of Pigs invasion a part of 1960 CIA plan under Eisenhower ➢The Bay of Pigs invasion was Kennedy’s most obvious foreign policy disaster

Containing Castro: The Cuban Missile Crisis ➢ 1962: Russian nuclear missiles confirmed in Cuba ➢Blockade Cuba to prevent more missiles from coming into Cuba ➢Threaten nuclear confrontation to force removal of missiles already there ➢World appears to be on the brink of nuclear war ➢Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles in exchange for public statement that U. S. would not invade Cuba ➢Private assurance that U. S. Jupiter missiles in Turkey would be removed

Containing Castro: The Cuban Missile Crisis ➢Consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis: ○ A new maturity in John F. Kennedy’s foreign policy ○ New negotiations regarding a reduction in nuclear testing ○ Soviet-American hotline set up ○ A conviction that the Soviets only understood the language of force ➢American foreign policy hawks believed that the outcome of the Cuban Missile Crisis justified a policy of nuclear superiority

*The New Frontier at Home ➢Kennedy’s staff was heavily populated with academics and intellectuals ➢Seeks legislative and economic reform ➢JFK was the administration’s greatest asset ➢Most controversial Cabinet appointment - Robert Kennedy - Attorney General

The Congressional Obstacle ➢Southern Democrat-Republican coalition control Congress ➢Coalition blocks far-reaching reform ➢Kennedy’s greatest domestic obstacle was Congress

Supreme Court Cases ➢From 1953 to 1969, Earl Warren served as chief justice of the U. S. Supreme Court. Under Warren's leadership, the Court actively used Judicial Review to over-turn state and federal statutes. During Warren's tenure, the Court became increasingly liberal and activist. ○ The most far-reaching decisions of the Warren Court involved legislative reapportionment. ➢Engle v. Vitale ○ The 1962 Supreme Court decision that banned school prayer. ○ Ruled that State Sponsored prayer of any type is unconstitutional

Economic Advance ➢Economic stimulation: ○ Increase space and defense spending ○ Informal wage and price guidelines ➢ 1963: Tax cut causes one of the longest sustained advances in U. S. history ➢Kennedy’s economic policies double growth, and cut unemployment ➢However, Kennedy was very frustrated when the leaders of the steel industry decided to raise prices.

Moving Slowly on Civil Rights ➢JFK downplayed civil rights legislation to avoid alienating Southern Democrats ➢JFK succeeded in appointing a number of African Americans to high government positions ○ Robert Weaver- Chief of the federal housing agency ○ Thurgood Marshal- Member of the U. S. circuit court ➢ 1961: Federal marshals were sent to protect Birmingham freedom riders ➢The ‘Freedom Riders’ were sponsored by Congress of Racial Equality.

Moving Slowly on Civil Rights ➢ 1963: Deputy Attorney General faced down George Wallace at University of Alabama ➢Civil Rights leader Stokely Carmichael advocated ‘Black Power’ ➢The Supreme court was the most important stimulus for social changes in the early 1960’s. ➢Civil rights legislation would not have happened in the Senate without the support of Republican Senator, Everett Dirksen

“I have a Dream” ➢ 1963: Violent police suppression of nonviolent protestors in Birmingham ○ Kennedy intervenes on side of blacks ○ Unlike Eisenhower, Kennedy provided presidential leadership ○ Congress asks for civil rights laws ➢ 1963: MLK leads march on Washington ○ MLK delivered “I Have a Dream” speech, the issues being highlighted by this event were addressed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964. ➢Civil rights movement did not accept JFK’s indirect approach to civil

*“Let Us Continue” ➢November 22, 1963: Lee Harvey Oswald assassinated JFK ➢VP Lyndon Johnson becomes President ➢Lyndon Johnson continues Kennedy’s programs ➢Johnson ultimately exceeds Kennedy’s record on economic and civil rights bills JFK assassination: https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=i. U 83 R 7 rp. XQY

Johnson in Action ➢Johnson not polished like Kennedy ➢Most influential Senate majority leader ➢Knowledge of legislative process in greatest asset ➢Known for giving the “Johnson treatment” ➢ 1964: Kennedy’s tax cut passed and resulted in a sustained economic boom ➢Civil Rights Act: ○ Outlawed racial discrimination in employment

The Election of 1964 ➢ 1964: Johnson launched “war on poverty” ○ Programs include Head Start, Job Corps, Community Action Programs ○ Encourage self-help ○ Reduce poverty by about ten million ○ Influenced by Michael Harrington’s Book The Other America ➢Johnson wins election against Barry Goldwater by a landslide

The Triumph of Reform ➢ 1965: Johnson’s Great Society domestic program advances beyond New Deal ➢Established Medicare program for the elderly ➢Also in 1965, Johnson sent American soldiers to the Dominican Republic in order to prevent a Communist takeover there. ➢Medicaid for poor ➢Elementary and Secondary Education Act ➢Voting Rights Act gives dramatic increase in African American voting registration in the South - bans literacy tests

*Johnson Escalates The Vietnam War ➢Johnson was a continuation of Kennedy’s foreign policy ➢A major critic of Johnson’s foreign policies was William Fulbright. ➢Inherited policy of containment - shared cold war assumptions and convictions ➢Determined not to “lose” South Vietnam to the Communists in North Vietnam ➢Eventually, Johnson’s obsession with Vietnam causes his downfall

The Vietnam Dilemma ➢After assassination of Diem, South Vietnam on the verge of collapse ➢Johnson continues economic aid and military advisers - also authorizes covert actions ➢ 1964: Gulf of Tonkins Resolution gives Johnson authority to defend South Vietnam ➢Johnson sought the Gulf of Tonkins Resolution to demonstrate to the North Vietnamese, and his political opponents, his determination to take a tough stance in Vietnam. ➢Johnson proves to enemies that he will take tough stance in Vietnam

Escalation ➢Communist leader, Ho Chi Minh, organized Viet Minh in North to free Vietnam from France/America ➢Communist organize army in South Vietnam called Vietcong ➢As a solution to situation in South Vietnam in 1965, Johnson’s key advisers urged American air strikes against North Vietnam. ➢ 1968: 500, 000 American troops in Vietnam ➢Johnson worries about consequences of either withdrawing or invasion of North ➢War ends up in bloody stalemate

Vietnam War ➢American tactics in the Vietnam War were ill-suited for the type of war being fought. ○ Bombing Campaign: Rolling Thunder ○ American bombing generally failed to accomplish anything. ○ Chemical Weapons: Agent Orange and Napalm ○ Land Campaign: Search and Destroy, Strategic Hamlet policy, and Body Count ➢The main premise of General William Westmoreland’s strategy in Vietnam was to wage a war of attrition against the Communists.

Stalemate ➢American military strategists counted heavily on massive American firepower especially air strikes which were largely ineffective ➢Air strikes to destroy supply lines not successful ➢Few industrial sites in Vietnam to bomb ➢Afraid to bomb certain supply ports because China and/or Russia might enter war ➢Americans back home gradually turn against the war

Years of Turmoil ➢Tet Offensive - Vietcong launch surprise attack on cities in the South ➢Tet Offensive - turning point for U. S. - major political victory for Northern Communists ➢Shocks Americans back home ➢Johnson blamed and opens peace talks ➢Johnson does not seek another term ➢The American experience in the Tet Offensive led Johnson to begin an effort to open peace negotiations with the communists.

The Student Revolt ➢ 1964: Student protest movement launched at The University of California Berkeley ○ The biggest student protest organization was the Students for a Democratic Society. ➢Later a former Harvard psychology professor who encouraged young people to experiment with drugs was Timothy Leary. ➢Challenged older generation’s materialism ➢Main issue of protest - Vietnam War ➢Widespread cultural uprising

Protesting the Vietnam War ➢ 1967: 100, 000 protesters besiege the Pentagon ➢ 1968: students seize 5 buildings at Columbia University for eight days ➢Demonstrations suppressed by a combination of negotiation and force

The Cultural Revolution ➢Rejection of older values through: ○ Sexual expression ○ Clothing ○ Drugs ○ Music ➢Some extremism provokes outrage ➢Serious challenge to hypocrisy of American Society

The Return of Richard Nixon ➢ 1968: Presidential election - A year of turmoil ○ Turning point in the Vietnam War ○ Massive protests in the streets ➢Richard Nixon wins election by narrow margin ➢Has plan to end Vietnam war

The Democrats Divide ➢ 1968 Democratic convention in Chicago besieged by anti-war protestors ➢Democrats wounded in public opinion ➢Failure to win war but won’t withdraw

The End of an Era ➢Election of 1968 ended 30 -year era of liberal reform, activist foreign policy ○ Richard Nixon defeated Hubert Humphrey ➢Americans sought less intrusive government ➢Vietnam war ended policy of containment