Chapter 3 The Biological basis of Behavior 8

Chapter 3 The Biological basis of Behavior – 8 th Edition

Communication in the Nervous System n Hardware: – Glia – structural support and insulation – Neurons – communication – Soma – cell body – Dendrites – receive – Axon – transmit away Table of Contents

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Neural Communication: Insulation and Information Transfer Myelin sheath – speeds up transmission n Terminal Button – end of axon; secretes neurotransmitters n Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers n Synapse – point at which neurons interconnect n Table of Contents

The Neural Impulse: Electrochemical Beginnings n Hodgkin & Huxley (1952) - giant squid – Fluids inside and outside neuron – Electrically charged particles (ions) – Neuron at rest – negative charge on inside compared to outside – -70 millivolts – resting potential Table of Contents

The Neural Impulse: The Action Potential n n n Stimulation causes cell membrane to open briefly Positively charged sodium ions flow in Shift in electrical charge travels along neuron The Action Potential All – or – none law Table of Contents

Figure 3. 2 - Neural Impluse Table of Contents

The Synapse: Chemicals as Signal Couriers Synaptic cleft n Presynaptic neuron – Synaptic vesicles – Neurotransmitters n Postsynaptic neuron – Receptor sites n Table of Contents

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When a Neurotransmitter Binds: The Postsynaptic Potential n Voltage change at receptor site – postsynaptic potential (PSP) – Not all-or-none – Changes the probability of the postsynaptic neuron firing Positive voltage shift – excitatory PSP n Negative voltage shift – inhibitory PSP n Table of Contents

Figure 3. 4 Overview of synaptic transmission Table of Contents

Signals: From Postsynaptic Potentials to Neural Networks One neuron, signals from thousands of other neurons n Requires integration of signals n – PSPs add up, balance out – Balance between IPSPs and EPSPs n Neural networks – Patterns of neural activity – Interconnected neurons that fire together or sequentially n Synaptic connections – Elimination and creation – Synaptic pruning – Figure 3. 5 Table of Contents

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Neurotransmitters n Specific neurotransmitters work at specific synapses – Lock and key mechanism n n n Agonist – mimics neurotransmitter action Antagonist – opposes action of a neurotransmitter 15 – 20 neurotransmitters known at present Interactions between neurotransmitter circuits Botox – Ach blocker – p. 86 Dopamine – substantia nigra – Parkinson disease – p. 87 Table of Contents

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Organization of the Nervous System Central nervous system (CNS) – brain and spinal cord – Afferent = toward the CNS/ Efferent = away from the CNS n Peripheral nervous system – nerves that lie outside the central nervous system – Somatic nervous system– voluntary muscles and sensory receptors – Autonomic nervous system (ANS) – controls automatic, involuntary functions • Sympathetic – Go (fight-or-flight) • Parasympathetic – Stop n Table of Contents

Figure 3. 6 Organization of the human nervous system Table of Contents

Figure 3. 7 – Peripheral Nervous System – Somatic and Autonomic Table of Contents

Cranial Nerves Table of Contents

The Cranial Nerves and Their Function n n n 1 – Olfactory - smell S 2 – Optic – vision S 3 – Occulomotor – eye movements, control of pupil and lens, tears MP 4 – Trochlear - eye movements M 5 – Trigeminal – facial sensations, chewing SM 6 – Abducens - eye movements M 7 – Facial – facial muscles, salivary glands, taste SMP 8 – Auditory – acoustic branch: audition S verstibular branch: balance S 9 – Glossopharynegeal – throat muscles, salivary glands, taste SMP 10 – Vagus – parasympathetic control of internal organs, sensation from internal organs, taste SMP 11 – Spinal accessory – head and neck muscles M 12 – Hypoglossal – tongue and neck muscles M S, sensory; M, motor; P, parasympatheic function Table of Contents

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Studying the Brain: Research Methods n n n Electroencephalography (EEG) – F 3. 10 Damage studies/lesioning Electrical stimulation (ESB) – F 3. 11 Transcortical Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) – F 3. 12 Brain imaging – – – computerized tomography – CT – F 3. 13 positron emission tomography - PET – F 3. 14 magnetic resonance imaging – MRI – F 3. 15 functional magnetic resonance imaging – f. MRI – F 3. 15 Table of Contents

Figure 3 -10 – Electroencephalography (EEG) Table of Contents

XXX 3. 13 Table of Contents

Figure 3. 14 – PET scan Figure 3. 15 – MRI and f. MRI scans Table of Contents

Positron Emission Tomography – PET scan Table of Contents

Magnetic Resonance Imaging - MRI Table of Contents

Functional MRI images showing reduced activation of language areas during a linguistic task in patients with schizophrenia Table of Contents

Functional MRI images Table of Contents

Brain Regions and Functions Hindbrain – vital functions – medulla, pons, and cerebellum n Midbrain – sensory functions – dopaminergic projections, reticular activating system n Forebrain – emotion, complex thought – thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, cerebrum, cerebral cortex n Table of Contents

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The Cerebrum: Two Hemispheres, Four Lobes n Cerebral Hemispheres – two specialized halves connected by the corpus collosum – F 3. 18 – Left hemisphere – verbal processing: language, speech, reading, writing, sequential – Right hemisphere – nonverbal processing: spatial, musical, visual recognition, parallel n Four Lobes: - F 3. 19 – Occipital – vision – Parietal – somatosensory – phantom limb - V. S. Ramachandran Phantoms in the Brain • http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=8 Ac. DXnzms. Mc – Temporal - auditory – Frontal – movement, executive control systems – F 3. 20 n Primary functions and associated functions – Language – Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas – loss of language – aphasia – F 3. 21 Table of Contents

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Figure 3. 19 – The cerebral cortex in humans Table of Contents

Figure 3. 20 – Primary motor cortex with homunculus Table of Contents

Mirror Neurons n An area just forward of the primary motor cortex is where “mirror neurons” were first discovered accidentally in the mid-1990 s. – May play a role in the acquisition of new motor skills, • the imitation of others, • the ability to feel empathy for others, • and dysfunctions in mirror neuron circuits may underlie the social deficits seen in autistic disorders. Table of Contents

The Plasticity of the Brain n The brain is more “plastic” or malleable than widely assumed – Aspects of experience can sculpt features of brain structure – Damage to incoming sensory pathways or tissue can lead to neural reorganization n Jill Bolte Taylor, Ph. D. – My Stroke of Insight – a neuroscientist story of her stroke and recovery – http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Uyyj. U 8 fz. EYU n Adult brain can generate new neurons – neurogenesis Table of Contents

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Figure 3. 22 – Visual input with split-brain – Roger Sperry and others Figure 3. 23 – Split-brain research Table of Contents

The Endocrine System: Glands and Hormones n Hormones – chemical messengers in the bloodstream – Pulsatile release by endocrine glands – Negative feedback system n Endocrine glands – – – n Pituitary – “master gland, ” growth hormone Thyroid - metabolic rate Adrenal - salt and carbohydrate metabolism Pancreas - sugar metabolism Gonads - sex hormones Use of steroids Table of Contents

Figure 3. 24 – The endocrine system Table of Contents

Genes and Behavior: The Interdisciplinary Field of Behavioral Genetics Behavioral genetics = the study of the influence of genetic factors on behavioral traits n Basic terminology: n Chromosomes – strands of DNA carrying genetic information n – Human cells contain 46 chromosomes in pairs (sex-cells – 23 single) – Each chromosome – thousands of genes, also in pairs n n n Dominant, recessive Homozygous, heterozygous Genotype/Phenotype and Polygenic Inheritance Table of Contents

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Research Methods in Behavioral Genetics Family studies – does it run in the family? n Twin studies – compare resemblance of identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins on a trait n Adoption studies – examine resemblance between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents n Table of Contents

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Modern Approaches to the Nature vs. Nurture Debate n Molecular Genetics = the study of the biochemical bases of genetic inheritance – Genetic mapping – locating specific genes - The Human Genome Project n Behavioral Genetics – The interactionist model – Richard Rose (1995) – “We inherit dispositions, not destinies. ” Table of Contents

Evolutionary Psychology: Behavior in Terms of Adaptive Significance n Based on Darwin’s ideas of natural selection – Reproductive success key n Adaptations – behavioral as well as physical – Fight-or-flight response – Taste preferences – Parental investment and mating Table of Contents

Parental Investment and Mating Systems - sociobiology Polygyny – high female, low male – based on a study by Buss (1994) found in 84 % of human cultures n Polyandry – high male, low female – rare but examples have been found for example in the Pahari of Nepal and India, and Tibet and other limited places in the world. The system in Tibet was based on class and land considerations. n http: //www. case. edu/affil/tibet/books. And. Papers/pahari. html Monogamy – shared parental investment but not always equal. There are few exclusively monogamous species – 15 % of human cultures (Buss, 1994) n Polygynadry – group parental investment and very rare – in chimpanzees mating is promiscuous for males and females n Incest – universal taboo – increased genetic diversity n Table of Contents

Figures 3. 32 & 3. 33 – brain asymmetry and speech localization – use of Wadi technique and TMS Table of Contents