Chapter 27 The Islamic Empires 1 Formation of

Chapter 27 The Islamic Empires 1

Formation of Islamic Empires • By 16 th century, Turkish warriors had transformed the Middle East into 3 major empires • The Ottoman Empire stretched from Algeria to Armenia • Multiethnic • The Safavid Empire covered most of Ancient Persia • Center of Shiite Islam • Mughal Empire covered most of India and Pakistan • Imposed rule over a predominately Hindu land • The creation of the 3 Gunpowder empires will unite the Muslim world 2

The Islamic Empires, 1500– 1800 3

The Ottoman Empire (1289– 1923) • Osman Bey led bands of semi-nomadic Turks to become ghazi: Muslim religious warriors • Captured Anatolian city of Bursa with light cavalry and volunteer infantry in 1326 • Developed into a major commercial and intellectual center • In Balkans, forced Christian families to surrender young boys to military service: devshirme • Often grew up to be exceptionally loyal Janissaries • Very quickly, the Ottoman Empire became well equipped with troops and weapons to take over and build their empire 4

Mehmed the Conqueror • Mehmed II (r. 1451– 1481) • Capture of Constantinople, 1453 • Renamed Istanbul • Ottoman Empire will be transformed from just a warrior empire to a commercial center • Transformation from warrior sultan to emperor of “two lands” (Europe, Asia) and “two seas” (Black Sea, Mediterranean) • There was no rival to Mehmed’s army • Expanded territory into Serbia, Greece, Albania, Crimea • Planned to capture pope; unsuccessful 5

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Süleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520– 1566) • Expanded into Asia, Europe • • Conquered Baghdad, Tigris and Euphrates Valleys Killed the king of Hungary Besieged Vienna, 1529 Tried to expand into Safavid territory • Developed naval power • Had 3 major naval fleets • Challenged many trading vessels in the Mediterranean, Red Sea and Indian Ocean • Barbarossa “Red Beard” commanded one of the fleets of ships • Named the “Law Giver” • Artistic, literary and architectural golden age • Reformed tax codes, fair tax collector • Efficient government 7

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The Safavid Empire • Young military leader, Ismail, r. 1501– 1524 • Orphaned, parents killed by enemies • Became shah, proclaimed Twelver Shiism official religion of realm • Twelve infallible imams after Muhammad • Twelfth imam in hiding, ready to take power • Wore distinctive red hat, called qizilbash (“red heads”) • Forced Shia Islam • Empire called Safavid after Safi al-Din, Sufi thinker • No true lineage was established as Ismail would change his origins as needed to gain support from different Persian groups 9

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Battle of Chaldiran (1514) • Safavid and Ottoman Empires were enemies • Safavid forced conversion to conservative Shia Islam • This did not sit well with the Ottoman Sunni Empire • Selim I (Suleyman’s Father) persecuted Shias in Ottoman Empire and planned an attack on the Safavid Empire • Full-scale Ottoman invasion of Safavid territory • Heavy use of Ottoman gunpowder technology gave them upper hand. Ismail escaped • Two centuries of ongoing conflict • Shah Abbas the Great (r. 1588– 1629) revitalized weakened Safavid empire • • Reformed administration, military Expansion of military and trade Moved capital to Isfahan Increased slavery, gunpowder technology 11

The Mughal Empire • Northern India invaded for plunder, 1523, by Zahir al-Din Muhammad (Babur the Tiger), Chaghatai Turk (descendant of Chinggis Khan) • Only cared about fortune and warring like his ancestors • Gunpowder technology gave Babur advantage • Tried to encroach on Safavid territory with little success; turned to India to conquer • Did not care much for the land he conquered • Founded Mughal (Persian for Mongol) dynasty • Expanded through most of Indian subcontinent 12

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Akbar (r. 1556– 1605) • Grandson of Babur • Illiterate but brilliant • No nonsense ruler • Reflective • Won fear and respect after throwing Adham Khan, leader of army, out a window twice • Second time just to make sure he was dead • Created centralized government • Destroyed Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar • Religiously tolerant, promoted “divine faith” • Syncretic form of Islam and Hinduism • Hoped to reduced tensions between Hindus and Muslims 14

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Aurangzeb (r. 1659– 1707) • Reached greatest extent under his long reign • Defeated his brother for the throne 1658 • Expanded Mughal empire into southern India • Ruled over major conflict between Hindus and Muslims • He did nothing to try to soothe tension • Hostile to Hinduism • Demolished Hindu temples, replaced with mosques • Tax on Hindus to encourage conversion • His policies would lead to the Mughal empire decline • Treated Hindus as subordinates not equals 16

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The Dynastic State • Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal empires all based on military conquest and steppe traditions • Adoptions of similar economic policies • Prestige of dynasty dependent on piety and military prowess of ruler • Close relations with Sufism, ghazi ideal • The ideal of spreading Islam by fighting infidels or heretics fit into Turkish and Mongolian traditions • Steppe tradition also autocratic • Issuance of unilateral decrees – Suleyman called the Law Giver • Intra-family conflicts over power due to distribution of power among family members • Shah Abbas lived in constant fear of his family; kept his sons imprisoned • Mehmed made a law that you could kill off your brother upon taking the throne • 1595, Sultan massacred nineteen brothers (some infants), fifteen expectant women (strangulation with silk) 18

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Women and Politics • Women officially banned from political activity • But tradition of revering mothers, first wives like Chinggis Khan • Süleyman the Magnificent deferred to concubine Hürrem Sultana • Originally Roxelana, Ukrainian woman • Convinced husband to murder eldest son in favor of her own child Agriculture and Trade • American crops effected less dramatic change in Muslim empires • Coffee, tobacco important • Initial opposition from conservative circles, fearing lax morality of coffee houses • Population growth also reflected territorial additions and losses • New crops had less of a demographic effect than in Africa and Europe • Trade with English East India Company, French East India Company, and Dutch VOC 20

Religious Diversity • Ottoman empire: Christians, Jews • Safavid empire: Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians • Mughal empire: Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians, Christians, Sikhs • Portuguese Gao became Christian center in India • Mughal Akbar most tolerant • Received Jesuits politely, but resented Christian exclusivity • Enthusiastic about syncretic Sikhism, self-serving “divine faith” Status of Religious Minorities • Non-Muslim protected people: dhimmi • Payment of special tax: jizya • Freedom of worship, property, legal affairs • Ottoman communities: millet system of self-administration • Mughal rule: Muslims supreme, but worked in tandem with Hindus • Under Akbar, jizya abolished • Reaction under Aurangzeb 21

Capital Cities • As each Islamic Empire matured; public works, palaces, and schools would be built to show off the power of each empire • Istanbul: cultural capital of Ottoman empire; massive monumental architecture • Rededication of Hagia Sofia church as Aya Sofya mosque • Topkapi Palace- Sultan’s residence and other important offices • Suleymaiye- vast religious complex • Isfahan: major Persian city • Akbar built magnificent Fatehpur Sikri • Chose site without sufficient water supply; abandoned • Taj Mahal: most famous Mughal monument • 20, 000 workers 18 years to complete 22

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Deterioration of Imperial Leadership • 1722 Afghan tribeman blockaded Safavid Empire • 1707 Aurangzeb died and Mughal India fell to regional fighting… • 1700 Ottoman Empire began to lose periphery territories • Ottoman princes became lazy through luxury • Selim the Sot; Ibrahim the Crazy • Attempts to isolate princes compounded problem • Religious tensions between conservatives and liberals intensified • Wahhabi movement in Arabia denounced Ottomans as unfit to rule • Forced destruction of observatory, printing press • Persecution of Sunnis, non-Muslims, and even Sufis by Safavid Shiites 28

Economic and Military Decline • Domestic economies suffered and foreign trade controlled by Europeans • Military, administrative network expensive to maintain • Expansion of new lands brought in economic boom but as expansion slowed so did the economy • Janissaries mutinied when paid with debased coinage, 1589; other revolts followed • Unproductive wars • Ottomans vs Hapsburgs • Safavids vs Ottomans • Aurangzeb vs Southern India • As economy slowed, officials raised taxes • Each empire welcomed foreign trade instead of creating their own trade companies • European military technology advanced faster than Ottomans could purchase it 29

Cultural Conservatism • Europeans promoted active study of Islamic cultures for purposes of trade, missionary work • Piri Reis was an Islamic cartographer that created many accurate maps • Islamic empires less interested in outside world • Swiftly fell behind in technological development • Example: Jews from Spain established first printing press in Anatolia in late fifteenth century; but printing of books in Turkish and Arabic forbidden until 1729 • Handwritten books preferred, but weak levels of dissemination • The Islamic Empires saw nothing good from European society except weapons and gunpowder technology • Did not implement any of the Scientific Revolution ideas from Europe 30