Chapter 20 Social Cognition Section 1 Attitudes Attitudes

Chapter 20 Social Cognition

Section 1: Attitudes �Attitudes are beliefs and feelings about objects, people and events that lead people to behave in certain ways.

How attitudes Develop �Factors that play a role in attitude development include: �Conditioning, or the ways that we are reinforced as we grow up, plays an important role in developing attitudes. �People often develop attitudes about what is positive or negative by observing others, or through observational learning. �People form attitudes on the basis of their evaluation of information. This process is known as cognitive evaluation. �Attitudes formed early tend to serve as cognitive

Attitudes and behavior �Behavior tends to be linked with attitudes. However, the link between attitudes and behavior is not always strong. �Behavior is likely to follow attitudes when the attitudes are specific, strongly held, personally relevant and verbalized. �Example: You believe strongly in protecting the planet, so you choose to recycle. �Attitudes often follow behavior to reduce cognitive dissonance. �Example: You know you need to get 8 hrs of sleep, however your work schedule does not allow enough time, so you convince yourself that you only need 6 hrs.

Section 2: Persuasion �Persuasion – a direct attempt to influence other people’s attitudes

Methods of Persuasion �Central Route: uses evidence and logical arguments to persuade people �Example: “Great Grains cereal is good for you because it is high in fiber and …. ” �Peripheral Route: attempts to associate objects, people or events with positive or negative feelings.

Message �Repeated exposure to a stimulus eventually results in a more favorable attitude toward that stimulus. �Some ways of presenting a persuasive message can be especially effective: 1. Two - Sided Argument – present both sides of argument in order to discredit opponents views 2. Emotional Appeals - persuade by arousing feelings such as loyalty, desire, or fear. Example: Montana anti-Crystal Methamphetamine billboards

Messenger �People tend to be more persuasive if they are: 1. Experts (ex. 9 -10 doctors recommend. . ) 2. Trustworthy (ex. Oprah’s book club…) 3. Physically attractive (ex. pick one) 4. Similar to audience in ethnicity, age and other physical characteristics

Situation �People are more easily persuaded when they are in a good mood

Audience �Differences in age, sex and other characteristics of intended audience influence how the message should be delivered to be the most persuasive.

Saying no to persuasive Messages �Some people are less easily persuaded than others. �These people are said to have sales resistance. �People with sales resistance typically have high self esteem and low social anxiety. �People with low self esteem and high social anxiety tend to be more easily persuaded.

Section 3: prejudice �Prejudice – generalized attitude toward a specific group of people �Literally means to prejudge �People who are prejudiced judge other people on the basis of their group membership rather than as individuals.

Stereotypes �- unchanging, oversimplified and usually distorted beliefs about groups of people. �People tend to develop stereotypes in an effort to simplify and organize information about the people around them �Stereotypes are harmful because they ignore the individual nature of people

Discrimination �While prejudices are beliefs, they can lead to discrimination �Discrimination – the unfair treatment of individuals because they are members of a particular group

Causes of prejudice �Exaggerating Differences – assume those that are different in some ways are more different than they really are �Justifying Economic Status – rich may see poor as lazy, which may make it to pay low wages �Social Learning – acquire prejudicial attitudes of family members, peers

Causes of prejudice �Victimization – victims of prejudice may treat those lower than themselves in much the same way in order to gain feeling or power, self-worth �Scapegoating – aggression toward individual or group blamed for a problem

Overcoming prejudice �Increased contact between members of different groups �Speak up against prejudice �Consciously avoiding allowing prejudicial attitudes to turn into discrimination

Section 4: Social Perception �Social Perception – refers to ways in which people perceive one another

Primacy and Recency Effects �Primacy Effect – tendency for people to form opinions of others on the basis of first impressions �How future behaviors are interpreted is often influenced by first impressions

Primacy and Recency Effects �Recency Effect – occurs when people change their opinions of others on the basis of recent interactions instead of holding on to their first impressions

Attribution Theory � - people tend to explain the behavior of others in terms of either dispositional, or personality, factors or in terms of situational, or external factors

Actor – Observer Bias � - people tend to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional, or personality, factors, and attribute their own behavior to situational, or external, factors. � - We are more likely to recognize the complexity of our own personality, and realize that our behavior is not necessarily indicative of who we are

Fundamental Attribution Error � - tendency to overestimate the effect of dispositional cases for another person’s behavior, and to underestimate the effect of the situation

Self-Serving Bias �People are more likely to attribute their own successes to dispositional, or personality factors �Less likely to attribute their failures to personality factors, more likely to attribute them to the situation

Nonverbal Communication �Examples: facial expressions, gestures, posture �We use interpretation of body language to pick up on unspoken thoughts or feelings that we do not have access to

Physical Contact �Touching is one way in which people communicate nonverbally �Interpretation of touch depends on many factors

Eye Contact �Direct eye contact – talker is usually telling the truth �Avoidance of eye contact – may indicate lying �Gazing – steady, intent looks, conveys eagerness or attention �Staring – fixed, wide eyes, tends to be interpreted as anger

Section 5: Interpersonal Attraction – attitude of liking � Leads to friendship or love � Factors that attract us include: 1. Appearance 2. Similarity to ourselves 3. Evidence that our attraction is returned �

Physical Appearance �People’s ideas of what is attractive differ �Universals of Beauty: studies find we are attracted to people who are smiling, have large eyes, high cheekbones, narrow jaws �Study found that infants found faces attractive that adults also rated as attractive �This evidence suggests we may be born with a predisposition to find certain types of physical features attractive

Difference in Body Shape Preference �Great variation in preferences for body shape �Men tend to view themselves as closer to ideal body shape than women �Studies found that many men prefer their partners to be shorter, women prefer their men to be taller

Similarity and Reciprocity �In general, we are more attracted to people who are like us

Similarity in Physical Attractiveness Matching Hypothesis – people tend to choose as friends and partners those who are similar to themselves in attractiveness � This may be caused by fear of rejection �

Similarity in other Characteristics �We are most likely to choose friends and partners who are similar to us in part because we are most likely to live around these people �In addition, people tend to be attracted to those with similar attitudes

Reciprocity � - mutual exchange of feelings or attitudes �We are more likely to like people who we believe like us

Friendship � 1. 2. 3. 4. Friends tend to be people: With whom we have frequent contact Who we find attractive Who approve of us Who are similar to us in important ways, such as attitudes

Love � 1. 2. 3. 4. Used in different contexts. For example: Parents and children Partners Patriotism Activities one is passionate about

Sternberg’s Triangular Model of Love Identifies seven types of love relationships 1. Intimacy: closeness and caring 2. Passion: feelings of romantic and sexual attraction 3. Commitment: want to be together for better or worse � Consummate (complete) love is made up of all three = intimacy + passion + commitment �