Chapter 2 Prominent Approaches in Life Span Development

Chapter 2 Prominent Approaches in Life. Span Development © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Research Methods As researchers formulate a problem to study, they often draw on theories and develop hypotheses. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Definition of a Theory • A theory is a interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and to make predictions. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Definition of Hypothesis • A hypothesis is a specific assumption or prediction that can be tested to determine its accuracy. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Prominent Approaches in Life-Span Development The Psychoanalytic Approach The Cognitive Approach The Behavioural and Social Cognitive Approach The Ethological Approach The Humanist Approach The Ecological Approach © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Psychoanalytic Theories • Behaviour is primarily unconscious – beyond awareness. • Behaviour is heavily coloured by emotions. • Behaviour is merely a surface characteristic with symbolic meaning. • Early experiences with parents shape behaviour extensively. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Psychoanalytic Approach Sigmund Freud Erikson Other Psychoanalytic Theories © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) • Medical doctor specializing in neurology • Developed ideas about psychoanalytic theory from work with mental patients • Considered problems to be result of experiences early in life © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Freud’s Three Structures of Personality • Id • Ego • Superego © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Id • Totally unconscious: has no contact with reality • Consists of instincts: our reservoir of psychic energy • Has no morality © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Ego • Deals with the demands of reality • Called the “executive branch” of personality: uses reasoning to make decisions • Has no morality © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Superego • The moral branch of personality • Takes into account whether something is right or wrong • Our “conscience” © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Psychosexual Development • Five stages. • Each stage focuses on a part of the body for experiencing pleasure. • How conflicts between sources of pleasure are resolved determines adult personality. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Definition of Erogenous Zone • Erogenous zones are parts of the body that have especially strong pleasure-giving qualities at particular stages of development. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Five Stages of Psychosexual Development • • • The Oral Stage (birth to 18 months) The Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years) The Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) The Latent Stage (6 years to puberty) The Genital Stage (puberty on) © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Oral Stage (birth to 18 months) • Pleasure centres around the mouth. • Chewing, sucking, biting are sources of pleasure. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years) • Pleasure centres around the anus. • Elimination functions are sources of pleasure. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) • Pleasure focuses on the genitals. • Self-manipulation is a source of pleasure. • Oedipus Complex appears. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Definition of Oedipus Complex • The Oedipus Complex is Freud’s term for the young child’s development of an intense desire to replace the same-sex parent and enjoy the affections of the opposite-sex parent. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Resolution of the Oedipus Complex • Children recognize that their same-sex parent might punish them for their incestuous wishes. • To reduce this conflict, the child identifies with the same-sex parent, striving to be like him or her. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Latent Stage (6 years to puberty) • The child represses all interest in sexuality. • The child develops social and intellectual skills. • Energy is channeled into emotionally safe areas. • The child forgets the highly stressful conflicts of the phallic stage. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Genital Stage (puberty on) • This is a time of sexual reawakening. • The source of sexual pleasure comes from outside the family. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Resolution of Conflicts When conflict is not resolved, individuals may develop a fixation. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Definition of Fixation • A fixation occurs when the individual remains locked in an earlier developmental stage because needs are under- or over gratified. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Examples of Fixations • Oral – due to parents weaning too early, as an adult the individual seeks out oral gratification through smoking, drinking, gum chewing. • Anal – due to parents being too strict with potty training, as an adult the individual is excessively neat and orderly (known as “anal retentive”). • Phallic – due to parents punishing the child for masturbating, as an adult the individual seeks out pornography. • Genital – due to parents smothering the child with too much affection, as an adult the individual has difficulty in romantic relationships, the result of being extremely “needy. ” © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Contemporary View of Freud’s Theory • Unconscious thought remains a central theme • Conscious thought plays larger role • Less emphasis on sexual instincts • Greater emphasis on cultural experiences © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Erikson (1902 – 1994) • Recognized Freud’s contributions • Believed Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development • Developed the Psychosocial Theory of Development © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Psychosocial Theory of Development • The primary motivation for human behaviour is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people. • Eight stages of development unfold throughout the entire life span. • Each stage consists of a unique development task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be faced. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Psychosocial Theory of Development (cont’d) • Crises are not catastrophes but rather turning points of increased vulnerability and enhanced potential. • The more an individual resolves crises successfully, the healthier development will be. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Stages of Psychosocial Development • • Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Identity Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Integrity vs. Despair © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Trust vs. Mistrust (First Year) • A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and a minimal amount of fear and apprehension about the future. • Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Second Year) • After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behaviour is their own. • They start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy. • They realize their will. • If infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool Years) • As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they are challenged more than when they were infants and active purposeful behaviour is needed to cope with these challenges. • Children are asked to assume responsibility for their bodies, behaviour, toys, and pets. • Guilt may arise if the child is irresponsible and made to feel anxious. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Industry vs. Inferiority (Elementary School Years) • As children move into middle and late childhood, they direct their energy towards mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. • The danger during this time is the development of a sense of inferiority – feeling incompetent and unproductive. • Erikson believed that teachers have special responsibility for children’s development of industry. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence) • Individuals are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. • Adolescents are confronted with many new roles and adult status. • If the adolescent explores roles in a healthy manner and arrives at a positive path in life, then positive identity will be achieved. • If an identity is pushed on the adolescent by parents, if the adolescent does not adequately explore many roles then identity confusion reigns. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood) • Individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships with others. • Intimacy is defined as finding oneself yet losing oneself in another. • Intimacy is achieved through the formation of healthy friendships and an intimate relationship with another individual. • Isolation results from failure to achieve the above. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood) • A chief concern is to assist the younger generation in developing and leading useful lives (generativity). • The feeling of having done nothing to help the next generation is stagnation. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood) • This involves reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one’s life has been well spent. • Integrity is achieved through reflecting on a past deemed worthwhile. • If the older adult resolved many of the earlier stages of negativity, looking back will lead to doubt or gloom (despair). © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Approach © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Contributions of Psychoanalytic Theories • Early experiences play an important part in development. • Family relationships are a central aspect of development. • Personality can be better understood if it is examined developmentally. • The mind is not all conscious; unconscious aspects of the mind need to be considered. • Changes take place in the adulthood as well as the childhood years (Erikson). © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Criticisms of Psychoanalytic Theories • The main concepts have been difficult to test scientifically. • Much of the data used to support these theories come from individuals’ reconstruction of the past, often the distant past, and are of unknown accuracy. • The sexual underpinnings of development are given too much importance (especially by Freud). © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Criticisms of Psychoanalytic Theories ( cont’d) • The unconscious mind is given too much credit for influencing development. • Psychoanalytic theories present an image of humans that is too negative (especially Freud). • Psychoanalytic theories are culture- and gender-biased. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Cognitive Approach Piaget; ’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Cognitive Theory © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Information. Processing Approach

Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) • Swiss psychologist • Observed his own children to develop theory of cognitive development • Changed how we think about the development of children’s minds © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory • Children actively construct their understanding of the world. • Children progress through four stages of cognitive development. • Two processes underlie development: – Assimilation – Accommodation © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Definition of Assimilation • Incorporating new information into their existing knowledge. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Definition of Accommodation • Adapting one’s existing knowledge to new information. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development • • Sensorimotor Stage (0 – 2 years) Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years) Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 years) Formal Operational Stage (11 and up) © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

© 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Sensorimotor Stage (0 – 2 years) • Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical motor actions. • At the beginning, newborns are limited to reflexive patterns. • By the end, 2 -year-olds are beginning to operate with primitive symbols. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years) • Children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Definition of Operations • Internalized mental actions that allow children to do mentally what they previously did physically. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 years) • Children can perform mental operations. • Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought, as long as reasoning can be applied to concrete examples. • Algebra is too abstract for this stage. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Formal Operational Stage (11 and up) • Individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think in the abstract, more logical terms. • Problem solving is more systematic and involves hypotheses. • Adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Cognitive Theory • Shares Piaget’s view that children actively construct their knowledge. • Emphasizes developmental analysis, the role of language, and social relations. • Like Piaget, Vygotsky’s ideas were not introduced in America until the 1960 s. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Vygotsky’s Three Basic Claims about Children’s Development • The child’s cognitive skills can be understood only when they are developmentally analyzed and interpreted. • Cognitive skills are mediated by words, language, and forms of discourse. • Cognitive skills have their origins in social relations and are embedded in a sociocultural backdrop. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Information-Processing Approach • Emphasizes that individuals manipulate, monitor, and strategize about information. • Central are the processes of memory and thinking. • Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information. • This enables the acquisition of increasingly complex knowledge and skills. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Evaluating the Cognitive Approach © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Contributions of the Cognitive Theories • They present a positive view of development, emphasizing individuals’ conscious thinking. • They emphasize the individual’s active construction of understanding. • Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories underscore the importance of examining developmental changes in children’s thinking. • The information-processing approach offers a detailed description of cognitive processes. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Criticisms of the Cognitive Theories • There is skepticism about the pureness of Piaget’s stages. • They do not give adequate attention to individual variations in cognitive development. • Information processing doesn’t provide adequate description of developmental changes in cognition. • Psychoanalytic theorists argue that the cognitive theories do not give enough credit to unconscious thought. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Behavioural and Social Cognitive Theories • These theories believe that scientifically we can only study what can be directly observed and measured. • They also believe that development is observable behaviour that can be learned through experience with the environment. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Behavioural and Social Cognitive Approach Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Skinner’s Operant Conditioning © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Social Cognitive Theory

Classical Conditioning • In the early 1900 s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered the phenomenon in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a behavioural response originally produced by another stimulus. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

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Operant Conditioning • B. F. Skinner demonstrated that the consequences of a behaviour produce changes in the probability of the behaviour occurring again. • Consequences can be either reward (increasing the likelihood of behaviour recurrence) or punishment (decreasing this chance). © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Social Cognitive Theory • Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel believed that cognitive processes are important mediators of environmentbehaviour connections. • Learning occurs through observing what others do, as individuals cognitively represent what they see and adopt the behaviour themselves. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Evaluating the Behavioural and Social Cognitive Approach © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Contributions of Behavioural and Social Cognitive Theories • They emphasize the importance of scientific research. • They focus on the environmental determinants of behaviour. • They underscore the importance of observational learning (Bandura). © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Criticisms of Behavioural and Social Cognitive Theories • Pavlov and Skinner put too little emphasis on cognition. • They put too much emphasis on environmental determinants. • They give inadequate attention to developmental changes. • They are too mechanical and give inadequate consideration to the spontaneity and creativity of humans. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Ethological Theory • Behaviour is strongly influenced by biology. • Behaviour is tied to evolution. • Behaviour is characterized by critical periods. • European zoologist Konrad Lorenz (1903 – 1989) identified imprinting. • John Bowlby theorizes about attachment. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Ethological Approach Charles Darwin Konrad Lorenz © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. John Bowlby

Definition of Critical Period • A fixed time period very early in development during which certain behaviours optimally emerge. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Definition of Imprinting • The rapid, innate learning within a limited critical period of time that involves attachment to the first moving object seen. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Attachment • A concept based on principles of ethological theory. • Attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences: – Positive and secure attachment results in positive development. – Negative and insecure attachment results in problematic development. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Evaluating the Ethological Approach © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Theory Contributions of Ethological • It has an increased focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development. • It uses careful observations in naturalistic settings. • It emphasizes critical periods of development. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Criticisms of Ethological Theory • The critical period concept may be too rigid. • It places too strong an emphasis on biological foundations. • It gives inadequate attention to cognition. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Humanist Approach Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Humanist Approach • Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow believed that people work hard to become the best they can possibly become. • Acknowledged the role of values, intentions, and meaning in understanding human behaviour. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Carl Rogers (1902 – 1987) • Best known for his contribution to therapy by introducing client-centred therapy. • Actualizing tendency is Rogers’s term for people’s ability to become the best they can become. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) • Self actualization is Maslow’s term for ability for people to become the best they can become. • Developed a Hierarchy of Needs that helps to explain human motivation. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-actualization Esteem Needs Belonging Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Physiological Needs • Maslow believed that our physiological needs must be met first. • Examples include oxygen, water, food, sleep, etc. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Safety and Security Needs • Once our physiological needs are met, we are motivated to the second level of need: safety and security. • Safety and security may be realized by job security, economic stability, savings for retirement, insurance, etc. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Love and Belonging Needs • Once we feel safe we look for love and a sense of belonging. • We are motivated towards behaviours that encourage our acceptance by family and friends. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Esteem Needs • Once our belonging and love needs are met, we strive for recognition. • If our esteem needs are not met, most of us will suffer from varying degrees of low self-esteem and inferiority. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Self-Actualization • Realizing our potential or being the best we can possibly be. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Evaluating the Humanist Approach © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Contributions of Humanist Approach • Reflects a positive regard for human nature. • Influenced and reshaped the nature of therapist-client interaction. • Considers the role of the environment on development. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Criticisms of Humanist Approach • Interpretation is too subjective. • Approach lacks scientific rigor of other approaches. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Ecological Approach • Emphasizes environmental factors. • Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development consists of five environmental systems, ranging from direct interactions with people to broadbased inputs of culture. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Evaluating the Ecological Approach © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Contributions of Ecological Approach • Attention to connections between environmental settings. • Consideration of socio-historical influences on development. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Criticisms of Ecological Approach • Even with the added discussion of biological influences in recent years, there is still too little attention to biological foundations of development. • Inadequate attention to cognitive processes. © 2005 Mc. Graw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.