Chapter 2 Formulating Research Problem q Knowing what
Chapter 2: Formulating Research Problem q Knowing what to research is the first step in the research design. q To do a research, a practical or theoretical difficulty must be identified. q But, what is a research problem? n A research problem refers to some difficulty, which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for. n It is an area that you would like to explore in your research. o You might, for instance, be interested in what program intervention will enable the unemployed to get jobs. 1
…(cont’d) o At first, the problem might be broad that you could not hope to address it adequately in a single research study. n So, we usually narrow the problem down to more specific research questions. o The research question is the central issue being addressed in the study. q For instance, a research question might be: ü Has poverty been reduced following the introduction of PSNP? 2
…(cont’d) o A good research question need to be: n interesting and/or important n clearly stated n has to be logical, rational, and tied to theory n feasible. o The research problem is often first expressed in terms of a research topic. 3
Identification of a Research Topic o There are three types of research titles: o Indicative title: n they state the subject of the proposal rather than expected outcomes. n Example: The role of agricultural credit in alleviating poverty in a low-potential areas of Kenya. o Hanging titles: have two parts; a general first part followed by a more specific second part. n Example: ‘Alleviation of poverty in low-potential areas of Kenya: the impact of agricultural credit’. 4
Research Topic…(cont’d) o Question-type titles are used less commonly than indicative and hanging titles. n Example: ‘Does agricultural credit alleviate poverty in low-potential areas of Kenya’. Where do research topics come from? o Of course, a topic must spring from the researcher’s mind i. e. it should be generated by the researcher o The best way to identify a topic is to draw up a shortlist of possible topics that have emerged from your reading or from your own experience that 5 look potentially interesting.
Sources of a Research Problem A) Professional Experience o Own professional experience is the most important source of a research problem. o Many researchers are directly engaged in program implementation and come up with a topic based on what they see that happened around them. n Contacts and discussions with others, n attending conferences, seminars, and the like are important source of research problem. 6
Sources …(cont’d) b) Inferences from the literature o Another source for research ideas is theoretical or empirical literature in your specific field. o Many researchers get ideas for research by reading the literature. o Two types of literature can be reviewed. ü The conceptual literature ü The empirical literature o Research reports, bibliographies of books, and articles, periodicals, research abstracts and research guides suggest areas that need research. 7
Sources…(cont’d) c) Technological and Social Changes n New developments bring forth new development challenges for research. o The most fundamental rule of good research is to investigate questions that sincerely interest you. ü i. e. research which a researcher honestly enjoys even if he/she encounters problems frustrating or discouraging. 8
Important points for selecting a research topic o The following points are important in selecting a research topic or a subject for research. ü Subject, which is overdone, should be avoided ü Controversial subjects should not become the choice of the average researcher. ü Too narrow or too broad or vague topic should be avoided o Consideration of the topic in terms of: ü The qualification and training of researcher, ü The cost involved and the time factor, etc. 9
Defining the research problem Statement of the Problem Ø Problem definition or problem statement is a clear and precise statement of the question or issue to be investigated. o Defining a problem involves the task of laying down the boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem. o The researcher must know exactly what his/her problem is before he/she begin further work on it. 10
…(cont’d) o A problem clearly defined is a problem half solved. o Defining the problem clearly will help to find answers to questions like: n What data are to be collected? n What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied n What relations are to be explored n What techniques are to be used for the purpose 11
…(cont’d) q The problem statement enables to grasp the relevant dimensions of the problem setting n It should provide a brief overview of the literature and research done in the field related to the problem and of the gaps that the proposed research is intended to fill. 12
…(cont’d) o Some ways to demonstrate that you are adding to the knowledge in your field: i. Gap: A research gap is an area where no or little research has been carried out. ii. Raising a question: The research problem is defined by asking a question to which the answer is unknown, and which you will explore in your research. iii. Counter-claiming: a conflicting claim, theory or method is put forward. 13
…(cont’d) iv. Continuing a previously developed line of enquiry: § Building on work already done, but taking it further (by using a new sample, extending the area studied, taking more factors into consideration, taking fewer factors into consideration, etc. ). 14
Guidelines for developing effective problem statement o The following guidelines can be used as checklists for developing effective problem statement that lead to a researchable problem specification. 1. The researchable problem must be sufficiently specific (confined) that it can be addressed with available resources. n Time, researcher expertise, data, tools, support personnel, and financial resources. 2. The dimensions of the problem should be described in objective (neutral) rather than subjective (advocative) terms. 15
Guidelines…(cont’d) n Avoid value judgment languages. 3. The problem must be described sufficiently that other people (the audience) comprehend it. 4. The researcher's perception of the problem may be derived from an intuitive level, but it should be developed to a logical level. § Emotional statements fail to offer evidence. 16
Guidelines…(cont’d) 5. The inquiry may be initiated with a research objective - but the problem explanation should be developed to provide justification for the objectives. 17
Steps in defining the research problem a) Statement of the problem in a general way n Problem can be stated in a broad and general way keeping in mind either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. 18
Steps…(cont’d) b) Understanding the nature of the problem more clearly o The best way to understand the problem is to discuss it with other more acquainted or experienced people. c) Survey of the available literature n Devote sufficient time to review both the conceptual and empirical literature. 19
Steps… (cont’d) d) Developing the ideas through discussion n Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. n The discussion sharpens the researcher’s focus of attentions on specific aspects of the study. e) Rephrasing the research problem: n The researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. n Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible. 20
Objectives of the study o This is the step of rephrasing the problem into operational or analytical terms, i. e. to put the problem in as specific terms as possible. o In this section the specific activities to be performed are listed. o The general objective provides a short statement of the specific goals to be pursued by the research. o The specific objectives are the objectives against which the success of the whole research will be judged. 21
Objectives…(cont’d) n The specific objectives are operational and indicate the type of knowledge to be produced, audiences to be reached, etc. o An objective should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-bound – that is, SMART. o It must flow logically and clearly from the purpose, problem statement and justification already stated. n E. g. The objective of this paper (research, study) is to assess (investigate) the possible impact of the amount of annual financial support the university students receive on their academic performance measured by score on their exams; in major ( selected ) Universities of the country. 22
Literature Review o The researcher should also undertake an extensive literature survey connected with the problem. o The literature survey enables you to learn as much as you can from the efforts of others. Ø Ø Ø Academic journals, conference proceedings, dissertations, government reports, policy reports, publications of organizations, books, etc. must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. 23
Literature Review…(cont’d) o So from the survey of the literature, you Ø will know that your question has not been answered elsewhere Ø can learn how other people faced methodological and theoretical issues similar to your own Ø can learn about sources of data that you might not have known before Ø can learn about other people tackling similar problems 24
Literature Review…Cont’d o Several articles can be summarized in one mention § Example: There have been numerous studies attempting to measure the return to education (see Becker (1963); Mincer (1968); Angriest and Krueger (1988); Bound et al. (1991)). ” o General information: ü Google, etc. ü Books: Library, amazon. com ü Articles and Web Pages 25
Structuring the Review Ø Summarize every article briefly; a sentence or two will do Ø Interpret the article in light of its relevance to your own study Ø Critique it, if necessary Ø Show the stock of knowledge building up over the course of the literature Ø Show your research topic adds naturally to this stock of knowledge 26
Chapter 3: Research proposal o The key to a successful research is the research plan. And the heart of the research plan is the research proposal. o The research proposal is the main vehicle for the planning. o Research proposals are generally required for all types of research endeavors. n The research proposals constitute the evidence of the research plan. Ø It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the project and provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow. 27
The research proposal… (cont’d) o It is essentially a road map, showing clearly the location from which a journey begins, the destination to be reached, and the method of getting there. n It tells us what will be done, why it will be done, how it will be done, where it will be done, to whom it will be done, and what is the benefit of doing it. n It is useful both for sponsors & researchers 28
The Structure of Research Proposal o There is no single way of writing research proposals. o Various organizations have their own styles and formats of writing a proposal o The following proposal components are usually important and used in thesis and senior essay writing. 29
Cover page o The cover page contains introductory information for the proposal: n the names of the proposed project (title) n the author of the proposal, n and the institution. o Some funding agencies have standardized cover pages that may contain additional information. o include logo 30
Title o One of the most important parts of a proposal. It will immediately attract or loss the interest of any potential donor. n the title or the topic should be worded in such a way that it suggests theme of the study. n It should be long enough to be explicit but not too long so that it is tedious. n It should contain the key words – the important words that indicate the subject. n Excessive length in title is often attributable to ‘waste’ or ‘fat’ words such as ‘An investigation on. . ’ or ‘Studies to examine. . ’ and the use of words that should appear in the main text. 31
Abstract o It is a short summary of the research proposal. o giving readers the chance to grasp the essentials of the proposal without having to read the details o It should include n a brief statement of the problem n the research objective and the benefits of the approach. n The methodology n Budget and date of finilization (for proposal) and main finding/conclusion (final paper) 32
Background of the study o The context of the problem o the researcher presents the background of what he wants to do information on the problem area o Policy & development issues of the area o General theoretical basis or overall justification as to why it is needed to conduct the study. 33
Statement of the Problem o This section is an expansion of the title. o It introduces the research by giving background, presenting the research problem and saying how and why this problem will be “solved. “ 34
Statement of the problem. . (cont’d) It addresses o Why is this research important? Who will benefit? Why do we need to know this? Why does this situation, method, model or piece of equipment need to be improved? (Rationale) o What is it we don’t know? What is the gap in our knowledge this research will fill? What needs to be improved? (Problem Statement) o Each word of the statement must be expressive, sharp, and indispensable. 35
#1. Sample problem statement Productivity of Teff o Agriculture is the main economic activity for people living in Gishe woreda, North Shewa Zone. Crop Production is dominated by teff. Reports from the district agricultural office indicate that the productivity of teff is very low despite widespread preference for the Crop. The purpose of the study is to find out the factors contributing to low productivity of teff in Gishe Woreda. 36
Research Questions o Identified from research gaps o Should be in line with the objectives o Each question will form a specific objective o Posing a research question helps; n to articulate the issues and give it an empirical focus n to give the reader a clear idea of the nature of the topic n to help the researcher to structure the research task, and n to set limits on the scope of the research endeavor. 37
Objectives of the study o This part addresses the purpose of the investigation. o The researchers lay out exactly what is being planned by the proposed research. 38
Objectives. . . (cont’d) o Generally, this section should focus on points n what is to be achieved by the proposed investigation? n It shows what kind of results are expected from the proposed study. o Two parts n General objective n Specific objectives: - directly addressed by the methodology. 39
The Research hypothesis o A hypothesis is a tentative prediction about the nature of the relationship between two or more variables. o It is an educated guess about the research outcome. o Hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be investigated. 40
Hypothesis…(cont’d) o Formulating hypothesis is particularly useful for causal relationships. o Hypothesis are important to determine • • • the nature of data needed It is the basis for selecting the sample, research procedures and method of analysis restrict the scope of the study, preventing it from being too broad, and to set a framework for reporting the conclusions of the study. 41
Main problems in formulating a working hypothesis o Formulation of a hypothesis is not an easy task. o The main problems that may arise include: n The lack of clear theoretical framework n The lack of ability to utilize that theoretical framework logically n The failure to be acquainted with available research techniques that enables to rephrase the hypothesis properly. 42
Characteristics of useable hypotheses ü The hypothesis must be conceptually clear. ü The hypothesis should have empirical references. ü The hypothesis must be specific, not too long. ü The hypothesis should be related to available techniques theory and methods. 43
useable hypotheses…(cont’d) ü The hypothesis should be empirically testable- verifiable or falsifiable. • It should be considered as valuable even if proven false. 44
Significance of the Study o This section justifies the need of the study. o This part shows the explicit benefits and the beneficiaries of the results of the research being conducted. o It describes the type of knowledge expected to be obtained and the intended purpose of its application. o It should indicate clearly how the results of the research could influence theory or practice. 45
Delimitations (Scope) of the study o This part indicates the scope (coverage) of the study. It should be delimited to manageable size. o clearly show what is going to be investigated and what not o A research project must be clear about its scope (a) Geographical limitations: o The study might only focus on some regions, even though the question pertains to all of Ethiopia. 46
…(cont’d) (b) Limitations by industry or occupation: n The study might only be able to capture some industries or occupations- formal or informal sector. C) Limitations by subject matter: o The researcher also must know that many other interesting questions may arise that are outside of the scope of the study. 47
Limitations of the study o This may be in relation to the weaknesses in the methodology, lack of access to preliminary data, faulty instruments, sampling restrictions, lack of recent literature in the area etc. o Note that limitation is usually part of the final research. 48
Review of the Literature o Both conceptual and empirical literature is to be reviewed for this purpose. n The researcher has to make it clear that his problem has roots in the existing literature but it needs further research and exploration. n Usually one source leads to the next and the best place for the survey is the library 49
Literature Review Tips ü Avoid the extraneous details of the literature; do a brief review of the information, not a comprehensive report. ü Emphasize on methods, results and conclusions. ü show the weaknesses and faults in the design, discussing how you would avoid similar problems. ü Always try to refer to the original source. q A good review points out areas where prior studies agree, where they disagree, and major questions remain. 50
Methodology of the Study o The methodology section attempts to answer the research question in the most rigorous way. o It will explain how each specific objective will be achieved. o It is impossible to define the budgetary needs of the research project in the absence of a solid methodology section. o Methodology can be organized as: Ø Description of the study area (if relevant) Ø Types and sources of data: 51
Methodology…(cont’d) Ø Sampling procedure: how to deal with populations in which large numbers are involved. • The details about the sampling procedures • The researcher usually comes across unmanageable populations. • Sampling technique used and sample size must be stated here. 52
…(cont’d) Ø Data collection Tools: • In order to collect evidence or data for a study the researcher has to make use of certain tools such as observations, interviews, questionnaires, etc. • The proposal should explain the reasons for selecting a particular tool or tools for collecting the data. 53
Methodology…(cont’d) Ø Methods of data analysis n In this section, the researcher describes how he/she organizes, analyses and interpret the data n The details of the statistical techniques and the rationale for using such techniques should be described in the research proposal. Ø Econometric model specification, if any. Ø Defnition and measurment of variables, Expected signs, if applicable. 54
Budget and Work plan n Research costs money, depending on its complexity and number of people and activities employed. n A proposal should include a budget estimating the funds required for travel expenses, typing, printing, purchase of equipment, tools, books, etc. o It would include all or some of the following items: ü Data collection costs ü Data analysis costs– software and hardware ü Transport costs, respondent’s incentives, etc. 55
S. N Items Unit 1 Stationary Disk compact disk (CD) Flash disk Paper writing pad Photo copy » » >> 3 Supportive services Secretarial service Internet Mobile card Transportation 4 Equipments 5 Data collection costs • Training • Service payment • Travel expense 2 Quantities/ duration Unit cost in birr Total cost in birr page Contingency (10%) Grand Total 30
Budget and Work plan…(cont’d) o Research must also be scheduled appropriately. n Researcher should also prepare a realistic time schedule for completing the study within the time available. n Dividing a study into phases and assigning dates for the completion of each phase helps the researcher to use is time systematically. 57
Time Schedule Activity 1 Activity 2 Activity 3 Activity 4 Activity 5 Time in week (months) or even days Jan Feb Mar. April May 145 days 30 days 41 days 45 days 58 day 28
References (Bibliography) • It is important that you correctly cite all consulted published and unpublished documents that you refer to in the proposal. • All works cited in the proposal are listed either alphabetically or numerically at the end of the document usually under the heading of “References or Bibliography “. • References: are lists of literature, which have been cited in the text of the document • Bibliography: includes also items, which were not cited but are relevant to the document. 59
Appendix o Mathematical formulae or proofs that are referred to in the proposal o Supporting documentation and evidencen Questionnaire and interview checklist n letter from owner of data, etc. n permission from any necessary authorities n Other supporting documentation o For secondary data, documentation that the data are available, and that they contain the measurements you need o For primary data, documentation that you will be able to collect the data 60
Citation vs. Referencing o What is referencing or citation? n acknowledging the sources of information (books, journals, websites, etc) in scholarly work. n It is a way of giving credit for someone's thinking, writing or research. n It is a way you tell your readers that certain material in your work came from another source. o You mark the material when you use it (in-text citation) and give the full identification at the end (reference list). o In academic writing you are obliged to attribute every piece of material you use to its author. o Avoid using outdated statistics; use only recent 61 reports or studies.
Basic Rules formatting in-text citation Standard Citation: One author For example: o According to Froggatt (2003) a growing body of research is emerging on maternal care…. OR o A growing body of research is emerging on maternal care (Froggatt, 2003). Standard Citation: Two authors For example: o Jowett and Shanley (1993) observed during interviews that patients responded……. OR o It was observed during the interview that patients responded well to drug therapy (Jowett & Shanley, 1993). Standard Citation: Many authors o Herth et al. (2004) stated that…. . 62
APA style How to reference a Periodical/Journal Article: o The following details are needed (if available) in this order: 1. Author/s of article – Surname, (comma) Initial(s). (full stop) 2. Year of publication in parentheses. (followed by a full stop) 3. Title of article. (followed by a full stop) 4. Journal title, in italics (followed by a comma). Note that journal title must be in full 5. Volume number in italics (followed by a comma if no issue number is given) 6. Issue/part number, in parentheses - only needed if issues are individually paginated (followed by a comma) 7. Page Numbers. of article (followed by a full stop) 63
Examples: o one author Neugroschl, J. (2002). Agitation: How to manage behaviour disturbances in the older patient with dementia. Geriatrics, 57(4), 33 -37. o two author Hughes, E. , & Rodgers, J. (1999). Changing times in diabetes care. Diabetes Primary Care, 1(1), 4. o The same is true for three authors as for two authors o More than three authors E. g. , A study by Cohet, C. , Cheng, S. , Mac. Donald, C. , Baker, M. , Huntington, N. , (2004) can be cited as: Huntington, N. , et al. (2004). Infections, medication use, and the prevalence of symptoms of asthma, rhinitis, and eczema in childhood. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 58, 852 -857. 64
How to reference a Book 1. Name/s. of author(s), editor(s) – Surname, (comma) Initial(s). (full stop) 2. Year. of publication in parentheses. (followed by a full stop) 3. Title. of publication in italics. (followed by a full stop) 4. Edition. (in parentheses) if other than the first (followed by a full stop) (edition always abbreviated to ed. ) 5. Place of publication: (followed by a colon) 6. Publisher. (followed by a full stop) 65
How to reference a Book One author Durie, M. (2001). Mauri ora: The dynamics of Maori health. Auckland, New Zealand: Oxford University Press. One editor Perl, A. (Ed. ). (2004). Autoimmunity: Methods and protocols. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. Two authors Polit-O'Hara, D. , & Hungler, B. P. (1999). Nursing research: Principles and methods (6 th ed. ). Philadelphia: Lippincott. Corporate Author New Zealand Occupational Safety & Health Service. (1996). Approved code of practice for the management of noise in the workplace. Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Labour, Occupational Safety & Health Service. 66
How to reference Master’s Theses? The following details are needed (if available) in this order: (NB: The American equivalent of a master’s thesis is a doctoral dissertation) 1. Name/s. of author(s), editor(s) – Surname, (comma) Initial(s). (full stop) 2. Year. of publication in parentheses. (followed by a full stop) 3. Title. of publication in italics. (followed by a full stop) 4. Name of University, (followed by a comma) Insert the following text before Name of University – Unpublished master’s thesis, or if from an American University - Unpublished doctoral dissertation 67
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