CHAPTER 2 Cultural Identity Development Developing Multicultural Counseling

CHAPTER 2: Cultural Identity Development Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach Second Edition Danica G. Hays and Bradley T. Erford

Culture • Culture defined – a set of “values, beliefs, expectations, worldviews, symbols, & appropriate behaviors of a group that provide its members with norms, plans, & rules for social living” (Gladding, 2001, p. 34) • Cultural identity defined – developed within the context of formal & informal connections that leads to values, beliefs, expectations, worldviews, symbols, behaviors, & acceptance of those in personally meaningful ways • Some of the most significant markers of cultural identity are nonverbal Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -2

Race and Racial Identity Development • Race defined – a powerful political & socioeconomic construct correlated with artificial categorical differences in physical appearance • Can impact an individual’s psychological functioning (i. e. , identity development process) • Understanding the complexity of race allows counselors to more appropriately and fully address clients’ concerns • Racial identity development defined – dynamic, multi-staged process, characterized by periods of momentary integration as racial experiences are processed and interpreted within a personal context Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -3

Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity Development • Ethnicity defined – “group classification in which members believe they share a common origin & a unique social & cultural heritage” (Gladding, 2001, p. 45) • Ethnic identity development defined – a complex process in which individuals negotiate the degree that particular ethnicities belong to them; influenced by external evaluation • Orthogonal cultural identity recognizes the multiplicity of coexisting identities in individuals Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -4

Enculturation & Acculturation • Enculturation defined – socialization process through which individuals learn & acquire the cultural & psychological qualities of their own group • • Takes place through interactions with parents/caretakers, peers, or from other adults, & culturally-based institutions or affiliations. Acculturation defined – changes in behavior, cognitions, values, language, cultural activities, personal relational styles, & beliefs as a cultural minority group comes in continuous contact with the dominant culture Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -5

Cultural Identity Development • Cultural Identity development defined – process of making one’s cultural group membership salient • Models begin with low salience and move to higher levels of involvement with culture • Some refer to identity development statuses rather than stages • Often development spiral rather than moving in linear paths Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -6

• Serve Racial & Ethnic Identity Development Models as a framework for most other models of cultural identity • General Principles: • Identify patterns of responses likely to be exhibited as people respond to each other and their own development • Assume that all races negotiate their racial identities through social interactions within and outside their racial group • Categorized patterns of responses are ego statuses that mark processing strategies for racial information • Research suggests that gender & age might influence racial identity status Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -7

Cross’ Nigrescence Model • Pre-encounter: preexisting identity or an identity to be changed • Encounter: induces identity change • Immersion-Emersion: Individuals immerse themselves in the symbols & signs of black culture & emerge with a more sophisticated understanding of black identity • Internalization: self-acceptance & pro-active black pride infused in everyday life while appreciating other dimensions of diversity • Internalization-Commitment: integration of personal sense of black identity into a way of being or long lasting commitment to black community and issues Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -8

Helms’ People of Color Identity Model • Conformity: acceptance of racial characteristics & external self-definition; may feel uncomfortable around people of color • Dissonance: confusion about one’s connection to groups of people of color & Whites • Immersion/Emersion: idealize own racial group while devaluing what is perceived to be White & resisting oppressive external forces • Internalization: capacity to use internal criteria for self-definition & the ability to objectively respond to Whites • Integrative Awareness: valuing of one’s collective identities & the recognition & appreciation of the similarities between oppressed people Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -9

Helms’ White Racial Identity Model • Contact: acceptance of socially imposed racial categorizations & rules • Disintegration: confusion about commitment to own group; movement between feelings of comfort & discomfort about race • Reintegration: idealization of own group; external standards used to define self & others; lack of empathy for others • Pseudo-Independence: rationalize commitment to own group & tolerance of others • Immersion/Emersion: challenges Whites to understand how they have benefited & contributed to racism; requires questioning, selfreflection, & critical analysis • Autonomy: internally derived definitions of self, demonstrate positive racial group commitment, & possess the capacity to relinquish racial privilege Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -10

Helms’ Racial Interaction Theory • Interaction effects of expressed racial identity development strata between counselor & client and the effects on therapeutic change. • Parallel interactions • Regressive interactions • Progressive interactions Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -11

Ponterotto’s Model of Cultural Identity Development • Used specifically with White counselor trainees • Pre-exposure: unfamiliar with multicultural issues, comfortable with status quo • Exposure: gain awareness of racism & other issues of diversity, initiated by coursework • Zealot-Defensive: may become pro-minority & anti-White • Integration: balanced perspective achieved, able to process emotions & make meaning of learning, and cultural awareness Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -12

Phinney’s Model of Ethnic Identity • Unexamined/Diffused ethnic identity: accept ethnic identities of significant family members without exploration; internalize stereotyped identities that pervade media and popular culture • Moratorium: exploration of identity and differentiation of culture of origin and dominant culture; emotional experiences & rapid sense of personal & cultural awareness • Acceptance: increased & healthy acceptance of identity & allow for full appreciation of multiculturalism Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -13

Poston’s Biracial Identity Development Model • Personal Identity: sense of self is based on personality constructs that develop within family • Choice Group Categorization: forced to choose an ethnicity due to peer, societal, or physical appearance factors • Enmeshment/Denial: may feel guilt, disloyalty, self-hatred rooted in choices made in previous stages • Appreciation: multiple heritages are explored • Integration: experience a sense of wholeness as they learn to integrate their multiple cultural identities Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -14

Kerwin & Ponterotto’s Multiracial Identity Development Model • Preschool: Children from birth through age 5 recognize similarities & differences in skin color & hair texture • Entry to school: biracial children may be forced to classify themselves • Preadolescence: youth increasingly aware of group membership & the social meanings ascribed to physical characteristics • Adolescence: developmental & societal factors pressure youth to choose a specific cultural group identity • College/Young Adulthood: continuing to embrace single culture identity while expanding sense of self • Adulthood: further exploration of culture; increased flexibility in interpersonal relations & understanding of self Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -15

Root’s Ecological Identity Development Model • Recognizes that gender, politics, SES, inherited influences, traits & skills, social interactions, & racial and ethnic groupings contribute to identity development • Concluded multiracial identity can be situational, simultaneous, flexible, and variant in private and public domains • Also significantly influenced by family dynamics, sociopolitical history, hazing, & other affiliations Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -16

Race and Culture-Specific Identity Models • Ruiz’s (1990) Chicano/Latino ethnic identity model • Choney, Berryhill-Paapke, and Robbins’ (1995) health model for American Indians • Sodowsky, Kwan and Pannu’s (1995) nonlinear model of Asian ethnic identity development Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -17

Addressing Racial & Ethnic Identity in Counseling • Understand & integrate appropriate principles of racial & ethnic identity models • Counselors do not force clients through developmental models • Counselors need to: • Recognize that clients rarely fit into a well-defined stage • View clients from contextual/developmental frameworks • Seek to increase self-awareness & historical competence regarding issues of multiculturalism • Confront and challenge negative or distorted culturallybased perceptions • Engage in advocacy & social justice issues Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -18

Gender & Sexual Identity Development • Theorized to move through statuses and processes in a fashion similar to that of racial & ethnic identity development. • Development intersects with & responds to biological, psychological, & social influences. • 3 major gender identity models • Males are exposed to stereotyped gender norms at an early age. Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -19

The Key Model of White Male Development (Scott & Robinson, 2001) • Recognizes the primary developmental task for men to be the abandonment of entitlement which leads to a greater sense of self • Noncontact type: little awareness of race, or it is ignored & traditional gender roles are valued • Claustrophobic type: blame women & people of color for any personal discomfort related to progress or privilege • Conscious type: re-evaluate belief system due to an event that creates internal dissonance • Empirical type: more fully recognize implications of sexism & racism and his role in their perpetuation • Optimal type: understanding of diversity & rewards of interacting with others in a holistic way Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -20

Downing & Roush’s and Hoffman’s Models of Feminist Identity Downing and Roush Model (1985) Hoffman Model (2006) Passive Acceptance : Acceptance of traditional sex roles Unexamined Female Identity: Acceptance of traditional women’s roles Revelation: Consciousness-raising crisis that leads to dualistic thinking and affirms women and denigrate men Crisis: Awareness of societal discrimination of women Embeddedness-Emanation: Involvement in supportive relationships with women leading to relativistic thinking Moratorium/Exploration: Commitment to active identity search Synthesis: Integration of personal and feminist identities Achieved Female Identity: Movement toward synthesis of female identity Active Commitment: Movement toward empowerment, societal change Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -21

Addressing Gender Identity in Counseling Counselors need to: • be mindful of varying degrees of salience for individual clients • recognize that gender identity statuses are not hierarchical • help clients clarify their worldview & understand the benefits & costs of particular ways of interacting • be cognizant of personal gender identity statuses & the implications of their own development on their work with clients Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -22

Sexual Identity Development • Focuses on sexual identity development for sexual minorities: gay, lesbian, bisexual, questioning • Sexual identity is a continuous, developmental process that culminates in self-acceptance, disclosure, & identity integration Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -23

Cass’ Model of Sexual Identity • Conscious Awareness: realization that gay, lesbian, or bisexual identity is possible; may feel alienated • Identity Comparison: tentative commitment to homosexual identity; begin to accept, reject, or partially accept their identity • Identity Tolerance: seeking out sexual minorities to alleviate feelings of alienation & enhance self-awareness • Identity Acceptance: establish a sense of normalcy • Identity Pride: strong commitment to homosexual identity & activism that may not yet be fully integrated into identity • Identity Synthesis: homosexual identity is fully integrated with other dimensions of self-identity Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -24

Troiden’s Model of Sexual Identity • Sensitization: attraction awareness of same-sex • Identity Confusion: growing awareness of same-sex attraction + incongruence between assumed heterosexual & homosexual orientations • Identity Assumption: acceptance & samesex sexual experience • Commitment: positive homosexual identity & committed same-sex relationships Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -25

Mc. Carn & Fassinger’s Model of Lesbian/Gay Identity Development • Parallel & reciprocal individual & group membership identity processes; not necessarily experienced simultaneously Awareness: • Individual - feeling different • At group level - different sexual orientations • Exploration: • Individual - strong, erotic feelings about other women • At group level - assessment about feelings regarding lesbians • Deepening Commitment: • Individual – commit to personal intimate and sexual choices • At group level – committing to lesbian & gay community • Internalization & Synthesis: • Individual – internalization of same-sex love • At group level – synthesis of membership in lesbian culture into total self-identity • Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -26

Weinberg, Williams, & Pryor’s Bisexual Identity Development Model Describes bisexual identity as a distinct developmental trajectory • Confusion • Finding and Applying Labels – First two stages involve unsettled feelings regarding attraction to both sexes and assignment of meaning to these unsettled feelings • Settling into Identity – emerging sense of self-acceptance • Continued Uncertainty – results from lack of closure – stems from society’s lack of tolerance for bisexual identity Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -27

Addressing Sexual Identity in Counseling Counselors need to: • work inclusively and systemically address issues of discrimination, marginalization, & prejudice • work to create inclusive & supportive therapeutic environments that provide safety, acceptance, & freedom from heterosexual assumptions • self-examine biases & attitudes regarding sexual biases • be cognizant of the different forms of identity development processes • coordinate client awareness of community resources • continue to enhance their awareness, and participate in research regarding sexual identity development Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -28

Spiritual and Faith Identity Development • Spirituality is a personally meaningful experience of the transcendent • Informs values & perspectives; provides meaning & mission • Associated with well-being, identity, and socialization • Does not need to be within the context of an organized religion • Spirituality development sometimes used interchangeably with faith development, however, have distinctions Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -29

Fowler’s Model of Spiritual Identity • Intuitive-Projective Faith: young childhood; become aware of cultural faith taboos • Mythical-Literal Faith: characteristic in late childhood; focus on religious system & symbols • Synthetic-Conventional Faith: adolescence; non-critical evaluation of faith & traditions • Individuative-Reflective Faith: older adolescence & adults; demythologize spirituality & critically evaluate spiritual path • Conjunctive Faith: adults; appreciative of cultural & traditional faith systems without being bound • Universalizing Faith: transcendent moral & religious actions, words, & quality of life Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -30

Parks’ Model of Spiritual Identity • Adolescent/Conventional: growing self awareness & openness to multiple perspectives • Young Adult: probing commitment & the critical choosing of beliefs and values • Tested Adult: further commitment & the “testing” of spiritual choices • Mature Adult: interdependence & interconnectedness that is comfortable within the context of strong, personal conviction Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -31

Poll & Smith’s Model of Spiritual Identity • Based on a sense of self in relation to God • Pre-Awareness: low salience for spiritual experiences • Awakening: Due to crisis, challenge or series of personally meaningful events leads to an awareness of God that is fragmented & specific to the crisis at hand • Recognition: cognitive & emotional understanding of God that permeates all life experiences. • Integration: internalized notions of God that order perceptions, interactions, relationships, & behaviors Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -32

Addressing Spiritual Identity in Counseling Counselors need to: • increase awareness of their own spiritual and religious development through articles, books, conversations, activities, reflection, & experiential activities • work to understand clients’ faith histories and possible stressors • provide a safe, therapeutic environment that normalizes & provides language for the discussion of spirituality • help clients identify & talk about personal spiritual experiences • incorporate spirituality and the reliance on God in work toward counseling goals • refer clients for further spiritual guidance and direction as appropriate Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach (2 nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2 -33