Chapter 2 Brain and Behavior Chapter topics Neurons

Chapter 2: Brain and Behavior

Chapter topics ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ Neurons – Building a Biocomputer The Nervous System – Wired for Action Research Methods – Charting the Brain The Cerebral Cortex- My, What a Big Brain you have! The Subcortex – At the Core of the Matter The Endocrine System – Hormones and Behavior Psychology in Action – Handedness

Neurons Building a “Biocomputer”

How do nerve cells operate and communicate?

Neuron and Its Parts ¡ Neuron: Individual nerve cell l Dendrites: Receive messages from other neurons l Soma: Cell body; body of the neuron l Axon: Fiber that carries information away from the cell body of a neuron l Axon Terminals: Branches that link the dendrites and somas of other neurons

The Nerve Impulse ¡ Resting Potential: Electrical charge of an inactive neuron ¡ Threshold: Trigger point for a neuron’s firing ¡ Action Potential: Nerve impulse ¡ Negative After-Potential: A drop in electrical charge below the resting potential

Synapse ¡ Microscopic gap between two neurons over which messages pass

Neurotransmitters ¡ Chemicals that alter activity in neurons; brain chemicals • • Acetylcholine: Activates muscles Dopamine: Muscle control Serotonin: Mood and appetite control Receptor Site: Areas on the surface of neurons and other cells that are sensitive to neurotransmitters

"To learn is to change. Education is a process that changes the learner. " George Leonard

"Not choice, but habit rules the unreflecting herd. " ~William Wordsworth

Plasticity ¡ ¡ Capacity of the brain to change in response to experience And, the capacity for routine

Neurogenesis ¡ Production of new brain cells

The Nervous System Wired for Action

Neural Regulators ¡ Enkephalins: Relieve pain and stress; similar to endorphins ¡ Endorphins: Released by pituitary gland; also help to relieve pain ¡ Neuropeptides: Brain chemicals that regulate the activity of neurons

Nerves and Neurons ¡ Nerves: Large bundles of axons and ¡ Myelin: Fatty layer of tissue that coats axons ¡ Neurilemma: Thin layer of cells wrapped dendrites around axons outside brain and spinal cord; forms a tunnel where damaged fibers go as they repair themselves

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) ¡ Occurs when immune system attacks and destroys myelin layer in the individual’s body; numbness, weakness, and paralysis occur

Central Nervous System ¡ Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System ¡ All parts of the nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord l l Somatic System: Links spinal cord with body and sense organs; controls voluntary behavior Autonomic System: Serves internal organs and glands; controls automatic functions such as heart rate and blood pressure

Two Divisions of the Autonomic System ¡ Sympathetic Nervous System: Arouses body; emergency system ¡ Parasympathetic Nervous System: Quiets body; most active after an emotional event

The Spinal Cord ¡ Spinal Nerves: 31 of them; carry sensory and motor messages to and from the spinal cord ¡ Cranial Nerves: 12 pairs that leave the brain directly; keep entire body in communication with your brain

Reflex Arc ¡ Simplest behavior; when a stimulus provokes an automatic response

Research Methods Charting the Brain

Brain Imaging ¡ Computed Tomographic Scanning (CT): Computer-enhanced X-ray image of the brain or body ¡ Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): ¡ Functional MR (f. MRI)I: MRI that records ¡ Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Uses a strong magnetic field, not an X-ray, to produce a 3 D image of the brain or body brain activity Computer-generated color image of brain activity, based on glucose consumption in the brain

Researching the Brain ¡ Ablation: Surgical removal of tissue ¡ Deep Lesioning: A thin wire electrode is ¡ Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB): When an electrode is used to activate lowered into a specific area inside the brain. Electrical current is then used to destroy a small amount of brain tissue. target areas in the brain ¡ Electroencephalograph (EEG): Detects, amplifies, and records electrical activity in the brain

Cerebral Cortex My, What a Big Brain You Have!

Cerebral Cortex ¡ Outer layer of the cerebrum ¡ Cerebrum: Two large hemispheres that ¡ Corticalization: Increase in size and ¡ Cerebral Hemispheres: Right and left ¡ Corpus Callosum: Bundle of fibers cover upper part of the brain wrinkling of the cortex halves of the cortex connecting cerebral hemispheres

Split Brains ¡ ¡ ¡ Corpus Callosum is cut; done to control severe epilepsy (seizure disorder). Result: The person now has two brains in one body. This operation is rare and is often used as a last resort

Central Cortex Lobes Occipital: Back of brain; vision center ¡ Parietal: Just above occipital; bodily ¡ sensations such as touch, pain, and temperature ¡ Temporal: Each side of the brain; auditory and language centers ¡ Frontal: Movement, sense of smell, higher mental functions l Contains motor cortex; controls motor movement

Association Cortex ¡ All areas of the cerebral cortex that are not primarily sensory or motor in function

Aphasia ¡ Speech disturbance resulting from brain damage

Broca’s Area ¡ Language area in brain related to grammar and pronunciation l If damaged, person knows what s/he wants to say but can’t say the words

Wernicke’s Area ¡ Related to language comprehension l If damaged, person has problems with meanings of words, NOT pronunciation

Facial Agnosia ¡ Inability to perceive familiar faces

Subcortex At the Core of the (Brain) Matter

Subcortex ¡ ¡ All brain structures below cerebral cortex Hindbrain (Brainstem): Lowest portions of the brain; includes cerebellum, medulla, pons, and reticular formation

Cerebellum Located at base of brain; regulates posture, muscle tone, and muscular coordination ¡ Also stores memories related to skills and habits ¡

Medulla ¡ Connects brain with the spinal cord and controls vital life functions such as heart rate and breathing

Pons (Bridge) ¡ Acts as a bridge between medulla and other structures l Influences sleep and arousal

Reticular Formation (RF) ¡ Lies inside medulla and brainstem l Associated with alertness, attention and some reflexes (breathing, coughing, sneezing, vomiting)

Reticular Activating System (RAS) ¡ Part of RF that keeps the cortex active and alert ¡ Its alarm clock

Limbic System ¡ System within forebrain closely linked to emotional response l l Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the cortex; switchboard Hypothalamus: Regulates emotional behaviors and motives (e. g. , sex, hunger, rage, hormone release) Amygdala: Associated with fear responses Hippocampus: Associated with storing memories; helps us navigate through space

Endocrine System l Glands that pour chemicals (hormones) directly into the bloodstream or lymph system

Pituitary Gland ¡ Regulates growth via growth hormone l Too little growth hormone means person will be smaller than average ¡ l Hypopituitary Dwarfs: As adults, perfectly proportioned but tiny Too much leads to giantism ¡ Excessive body growth

Acromegaly ¡ Enlargement of arms, hands, feet, and facial bones l Too much growth hormone released late in growth period ¡ Andre the Giant

Pineal Gland ¡ Regulates body rhythms and sleep cycles l Releases hormone melatonin, which responds to daily variations in light

Thyroid ¡ In neck; regulates metabolism l l Hyperthyroidism: Overactive thyroid; person tends to be thin, tense, excitable, nervous Hypothyroidism: Underactive thyroid; person tends to be inactive, sleepy, slow, obese

The Adrenal Glands Arouse body, regulate salt balance, adjust body to stress, regulate sexual functioning; located on top of kidneys. ¡ Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine (also known as adrenalin and noradrenalin). ¡ l l Epinephrine arouses body; is associated with fear. Norepinephrine arouses body; is linked with anger.

The Adrenal Medulla ¡ Source of epinephrine and norepinephrine

Adrenal Cortex ¡ Produces hormones known as corticoids l l Regulate salt balance Deficiency in some types will cause powerful salt cravings Oversecretion of adrenal sex hormones can cause virilism: exaggerated male characteristics (Bearded woman) May also cause premature puberty (full sexual development in childhood) if occurs early in life

Psychology in Action If Your Brain is Right What is Left?

Handedness Preference for right or left hand ¡ Dominant Hemisphere: Applies to side of person’s brain that produces language ¡ Lateralization: Difference in the abilities of the brain’s hemispheres ¡