Chapter 14 Food Soil Resources Global food production

Chapter 14: Food & Soil Resources

Global food production World agricultural production has risen faster than human population. Figure 9. 1

Global food security • However, the world still has 800 million hungry people, largely due to inadequate distribution. • Considering soil degradation, can we count on food production continuing to rise? • Global food security is a goal of scientists and policymakers worldwide.

Nutrition • Undernourishment = too few calories (especially developing countries) • Overnutrition = too many calories (especially developed world) • Malnutrition = lack of nutritional requirements (causes numerous diseases, esp. in developing world) Figure 9. 2

Food Production, Nutrition and Environmental Effects • ~ 1 in 6 people in developing nations are chronically undernourished or malnourished Common nutritional deficiency diseases: Marasmus and Kwashiorkor • • M = diet low in calories and protein K = severe protein deficiency

Poverty Decreased resistance to disease Malnutrition Decreased energy Decreased ability to learn High death rate for children Decreased ability to work Shortened life expectancy Feedback loop Fig. 12. 9, p. 269

The three systems humans depend on for their food supply • Croplands (77%) – land used for planting crops; vegetables, fruits, and grains • Rangelands (16%)- Land used for grazing livestock; meat products • Ocean fisheries (7%) - shellfish/fish (6% of protein in human diet)

Human Food Supply Croplands Rangelands Fisheries Major increase in food production post-1950 Tractors Farm Equip. Irrigation Fertilizers Pesticides i n p u t Feedlots Feed Pens Growth Hormones Careful Breeding High-Tech Gear & Electronics Aquaculture

Human Population Growth and Food Production • 9 billion humans by 2054 – More food than has been produced in last 10 k yrs • Is current technology capable? • Environmental degradation Issues: – Pollution – Water supply (irrigation) – Overgrazing – Overfishing – Ecological services (matter; energy)

Lack of Diversity in Food 3 grain crops that provide “more than ½ of the calories people consume”. 30, 000 edible plant species But 90% of all food only comes from 15 plants [esp. wheat, rice, corn, soy ] & 8 animals- [esp. beef, pork, chicken] Fish 1% energy 6 % protein

Major Types of Agriculture 1. Traditional subsistence (20%, 44% pop. ) Low-input, human labor, "just enough" - Shifting cultivation; - nomadic livestock 2. Traditional intensive Higher input, "more than enough“ 3. Plantation - Monoculture cash crops (bananas, coffee, sugarcane, etc) 4. Industrialized (high-input) 25% of all cropland, developed nations

Industrialized agriculture Plantation agriculture Nomadic herding Shifting cultivation Intensive traditional agriculture Fig. 12. 2, p. 263 No agriculture

The Green Revolution increased production of food per unit of area of cropland; planting monocultures, increase use of pesticides, water, fertilizers, etc. Since 1950 • Develop & plant monocultures (ie. corn) • Input fertilizer, pesticides, water • Multiple cropping on plot of land Since 1967 • Fast growing dwarf varieties of rice and wheat • More food on less land • Increase use of fossil fuels, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation Age of Genetic Engineering • >2/3 of products on U. S. grocery store shelves contain ingredients from GE crops!

Green-Revolution- increasing global food production… Farm more land = Increase crop yield / land area High-yield monocultures High Input High intensity frequency of cropping = selective breeding genetic engineering (GMO’s) = high energy input (8% world oil) fertilizers, pesticides, water = dwarf varieties- 3 -5 x yield multicropping (2 -3/year)

Monocultures • Intensified agriculture meant monocultures, vast spreads of a single crop. • This is economically efficient, but increases risk of catastrophic failure (“all eggs in one basket”). Wheat monoculture in Washington Figure 9. 4 a

Green revolution: Environmental impacts • Intensification of agriculture causes environmental harm: • Pollution from synthetic fertilizers • Pollution from synthetic pesticides • Water depleted for irrigation • Fossil fuels used for heavy equipment • However, without the green revolution, much more land would have been converted for agriculture, destroying forests, wetlands, and other ecosystems.

First green revolution (developed countries) Major International agricultural research centers and seed banks Second green revolution (developing countries)

Energy Use in Food Production: Industrial Agriculture (United States) Since 1940’s: 2 x production on the same amount of land Agribusiness- big companies and large family farms own 75% of US food production - 2% pop. = farmers; 9% pop. = involve in production - Agriculture provides 18% US GNP; 19% jobs (private sect); 0. 3% world's labor - 17% of world’s grain is produced in the US; ½ the world’s corn & soybean exports • Putting food on the table utilizes 17% of US commercial energy, mostly from oil • Food production uses 3 units of fossil fuel energy for 1 unit of food energy obtained. Units of energy take in to account the energy used to grow, store, process, pack, process, refrigerate, and cook v Plants involve > energy out than in; Livestock involve > energy in, than out.

Energy Use in Food Production: Traditional and Traditional Intensive • 20% of world food on 75% cultivated land • Most traditional farmers use INTERPLANTING - growing several crops on a single plot of land. Types of interplanting 1. Polyvarietals - varieties of 1 crop 2. Intercropping - 2+ different on same plot (legumes/grain) 3. Agroforestry/alley cropping - crops/trees together 4. Polyculture - many plants maturing at different times on same plot Advantages include: < energy input, erosion/weather protection, pest/herbicides not needed

Intercropping Polyculture Polyvarietals Agroforestry

Soil Erosion and Degradation Causes: water, wind, and people • Land degradation- when natural or human induced processes reduce the future ability of land to support crops, livestock or wild species. (i. e. soil erosion due to flowing water or wind) • Erosion of topsoil leads to loss of soil fertility and increase sediment in nearby surface waters which can block sunlight, kill fish, and clog irrigation ditches, channels, etc.

Causes of soil degradation Most soil degradation is caused by: • livestock overgrazing • deforestation • cropland agriculture Figure 8. 2

Types of soil erosion Splash erosion Rill erosion Gully erosion Sheet erosion Figure 8. 11

Desertification A loss of more than 10% productivity due to: • • Erosion Soil compaction Forest removal Overgrazing Drought Salinization Climate change Depletion of water resources When severe, there is expansion of desert areas, or creation of new ones, e. g. , the Middle East, formerly, “Fertile Crescent”.

The Dust Bowl • Drought and degraded farmland produced the 1930 s Dust Bowl. • Storms brought dust from the U. S. Great Plains all the way to New York and Washington, and wrecked many lives. Figure 8. 14

Desertification Causes Consequences Overgrazing Worsening drought Deforestation Famine Erosion Economic losses Salinization Lower living standards Soil compaction Natural climate change Environmental refugees

Preventing soil degradation Several farming strategies to prevent soil degradation: • • • Crop rotation Contour farming Intercropping Terracing Shelterbelts Conservation tillage

Soil conservation As a result of the Dust Bowl, the U. S. Soil Conservation Act of 1935 and the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) were created. • SCS: Local agents in conservation districts worked with farmers to disseminate scientific knowledge and help them conserve their soil.

Crop rotation • Alternating the crop planted (e. g. , between corn and soybeans) can restore nutrients to soil and fight pests and disease. Figure 8. 16 a

Contour farming • Planting along contour lines of slopes helps reduce erosion on hillsides. Figure 8. 16 b

Intercropping • Mixing crops such as in strip cropping can provide nutrients and reduce erosion. Figure 8. 16 c

(c) Alley cropping

Terracing • Cutting stairsteps or terraces is the only way to farm extremely steep hillsides without causing massive erosion. It is labor-intensive to create, but has been a mainstay for centuries in the Himalayas and the Andes.

Shelterbelts • Rows of fast-growing trees around crop plantings provide windbreaks, reducing erosion by wind. Figure 8. 16 e

Conservation tillage No-till and reduced-tillage farming leaves old crop residue on the ground instead of plowing it into soil. This covers the soil, keeping it in place. Conservation tillage is not a solution for all crops everywhere. • It often requires more chemical herbicides (because weeds are not plowed under). • It often requires more fertilizer (because other plants compete with crops for nutrients). Here, corn grows up out of a “cover crop. ” But legume cover crops can keep weeds at bay while nourishing soil, and green manures can be used as organic fertilizers. Figure 8. 16 f

Trade-Offs Conservation Tillage Advantages Reduces erosion Saves fuel Disadvantages Can increase herbicide use for some crops Cuts costs Holds more soil water Reduces soil compaction Allows several crops per season Does not reduce crop yields Reduces CO 2 release from soil Leaves stalks that can harbor crop pests and fungal diseases and increase pesticide use Requires investment in expensive equipment

Central Case: No-Till Agriculture in Brazil • Southern Brazil’s farmers were suffering falling yields, erosion, and pollution from agrichemicals. • They turned to no-till farming, which bypasses plowing. • Erosion was reduced, soils were enhanced, and yields rose greatly. No-till methods are spreading worldwide.

Irrigation • The artificial provision of water to support agriculture • 70% of all freshwater used by humans is used for irrigation. • Irrigated land globally covers more area than all of Mexico and Central America combined. • Irrigation has boosted productivity in many places … but too much can cause problems.

Waterlogging and salinization • Overirrigation can raise the water table high enough to suffocate plant roots with waterlogging. • Salinization (buildup of salts in surface soil layers) is a more widespread problem. Salt in soils decreases the osmotic potential of the soil so that plants can't take up water from it. The salts can also be directly toxic, but plant troubles usually result primarily from inability to take up water from salty soils • Evaporation in arid areas draws water up through the soil, bringing salts with it. Irrigation causes repeated evaporation, bringing more salts up.

Solutions Soil Salinization Prevention Reduce irrigation Cleanup Flushing soil (expensive and wastes water) Not growing crops for 2 -5 years Switch to salttolerant crops (such as barley, cotton, sugar beet) Installing underground drainage systems (expensive)

Global fertilizer usages • Fertilizer use has risen dramatically in the past 50 years. Figure 8. 19 b

Trade-Offs Inorganic Commercial Fertilizers Advantages Disadvantages Easy to transport Do not add humus to soil Easy to store Reduce organic matter in soil Easy to apply Reduce ability of soil to hold water Inexpensive to produce Lower oxygen content of soil Help feed one of every three people in the world Without commercial inorganic fertilizers, world food output could drop by 40% Require large amounts of energy to produce, transport, and apply Release the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N 2 O) Runoff can overfertilize nearby lakes and kill fish

Overgrazing • When livestock eat too much plant cover on rangelands, impeding plant regrowth. • The contrast between ungrazed and overgrazed land on either side of a fenceline can be striking. Figure 8. 22

Overgrazing • Overgrazing can set in motion a series of positive feedback loops. Figure 8. 21

Environmental effects of food production Biodiversity Loss and degradation of habitat from clearing grasslands and forests and draining wetland Fish kills from pesticide runoff Killing of wild predators to protect livestock Loss of genetic diversity from replacing thousands of wild crop strains with a few monoculture strains Soil Erosion Loss of fertility Salinization Waterlogging Desertification

Air Pollution Greenhouse gas emissions from fossil Fuel issue Other air pollutants from fossil fuel use Pollution from pesticide sprays Water waste Aquifer depletion Surface and groundwater pollution from pesticides and fertilizers Increased runoff and Overfertilization of lakes flooding from land cleared and slow-moving rivers to grow crops from runoff of nitrates and phosphates from Sediment pollution from fertilizers, livestock erosion wastes, and food processing wastes Fish kills from pesticide runoff

Human Health Nitrates in drinking water Pesticide residues in drinking water, food, and air Contamination of drinking and swimming water with disease organisms from livestock wastes Bacterial contamination of meat

Pesticide use • Pesticide use is still rising sharply across the world, although growth has slowed in the U. S. – 1 billion kg (2 billion lbs. ) of pesticides are applied each year in the U. S. Figure 9. 5

Biological control • Synthetic chemicals can pollute and be health hazards. • Biological control (biocontrol) avoids this. • Biocontol entails battling pests and weeds with other organisms that are natural enemies of those pests and weeds. • (“The enemy of my enemy is my friend. ”)

Biological control • Biocontrol has had success stories. • Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) = soil bacterium that kills many insects. In many cases, seemingly safe and effective. Cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (above), was used to wipe out invasive prickly pear cactus in Australia. Figure 9. 7

But biocontrol is risky • Most biocontrol agents are introduced from elsewhere. • Some may turn invasive and become pests themselves! • Cactus moths brought to the Caribbean jumped to Florida, are eating native cacti, and spreading. • Wasps and flies brought to Hawaii to control crop pests are parasitizing native caterpillars in wilderness areas.

Integrated pest management (IPM) • Combines biocontrol, chemical, and other methods May involve: • • Biocontrol Pesticides Close population monitoring Habitat modification Crop rotation Transgenic crops Alternative tillage Mechanical pest removal

Genetic modification of food • Manipulating and engineering genetic material in the lab may represent the best hope for increasing agricultural production further without destroying more natural lands. • But many people remain uneasy about genetically engineering crop plants and other organisms.

Some GM foods Golden rice: Enriched with vitamin A. But too much hype? Ice-minus strawberries: Frostresistant bacteria sprayed on. Images alarmed public. Flavr. Savr tomato: Better taste? But pulled from market. Bt crops: Widely used on U. S. crops. But ecological concerns? Figure 9. 12

Prevalence of GM foods Figure 9. 13

Scientific concerns about GM organisms • Are there health risks for people? • Can transgenes escape into wild plants, pollute ecosystems, harm organisms? • Can pests evolve resistance to GM crops just as they can to pesticides? • Can transgenes jump from crops to weeds and make them into “superweeds”? • Can transgenes get into traditional native crop races and ruin their integrity?

Socioeconomic and political concerns about GM products • Should scientists and corporations be “tinkering with” our food supply? • Are biotech corporations testing their products adequately, and is outside oversight adequate? • Should large multinational corporations exercise power over global agriculture and small farmers?

Europe vs. America • Europe: has followed precautionary principle in approach to GM foods. Governments have listened to popular opposition among their citizens. • U. S. : GM foods were introduced and accepted with relatively little public debate. • Relations over agricultural trade have been uneasy, and it remains to be seen whether Europe will accept more GM foods from the U. S.

Trade-Offs Genetically Modified Food and Crops Projected Advantages Need less fertilizer Need less water More resistant to insects, plant disease, frost, and drought Faster growth Can grow in slightly salty soils Less spoilage Better flavor Less use of conventional pesticides Tolerate higher levels of pesticide use Higher yields Projected Disadvantages Irreversible and unpredictable genetic and ecological effects Harmful toxins in food From possible plant cell Mutations New allergens in food Lower nutrition Increased evolution of Pesticide-resistant Insects and plant disease Creation of herbicide. Resistant weeds Harm beneficial insects Lower genetic diversity

Preserving crop diversity • Native cultivars of crops are important to preserve, in case we need their genes to overcome future pests or pathogens. • Diversity of cultivars has been rapidly disappearing from all crops throughout the world.

Seed banks preserve seeds, crop varieties – Seed banks are living museums of crop diversity, saving collections of seeds and growing them into plants every few years to renew the collection. • Careful hand pollination helps ensure plants of one type do not interbreed with plants of another. Figure 9. 14

Animal agriculture: Livestock and poultry • Consumption of meat has risen faster than population over the past several decades. Figure 9. 15

Feedlot agriculture • Increased meat consumption has led to animals being raised in feedlots (factory farms), huge pens that deliver energy-rich food to animals housed at extremely high densities. Figure 9. 16

Feed lots • • • More production of livestock in smaller, condensed spaces; Produce more using less space and energy Increases need for antibiotics due to enclosed spaces; leads to issues of cruelty to animals Hormones given to produce larger animals for more meat= more $!

Feedlot agriculture: Environmental impacts • Immense amount of waste produced, polluting air and water nearby • Intense usage of chemicals (antibiotics, steroids, hormones), some of which persist in environment • However, if all these animals were grazing on rangeland, how much more natural land would be converted for agriculture?

Food choices = energy choices • Energy is lost at each trophic level. • When we eat meat from a cow fed on grain, most of the grain’s energy has already been spent on the cow’s metabolism. • Eating meat is therefore very energy inefficient. - Hence, the “Eating Green” Challenge! Feb. 28 - March 7

Grain feed input for animal output • Some animal food products can be produced with less input of grain feed than others. Figure 9. 17

Land water input for animal output • Some animal food products can be produced with less input of land water than others. Figure 9. 18

Aquaculture • The raising of aquatic organisms for food in controlled environments • Provides 1/3 of world’s fish for consumption • 220 species being farmed • The fastest growing type of food production

Benefits of aquaculture • Provides reliable protein source for people, increases food security • Can be small-scale, local, and sustainable • Reduces fishing pressure on wild stocks, and eliminates bycatch • Uses fewer fossil fuels than fishing • Can be very energy efficient

Environmental impacts of aquaculture • Density of animals leads to disease, antibiotic use, risks to food security. • It can generate large amounts of waste. • Often animals are fed grain, which is not energy efficient. • Sometimes animals are fed fish meal from wild-caught fish. • Farmed animals may escape into the wild and interbreed with, compete with, or spread disease to wild animals.

Catching and Raising More Fish Ø Fisheries Ø Fishing methods (See Fig. 14 -24 p. 299) Ø Sustainable yield Ø Overfishing- decreased biodiversity; affects aquatic food chains; bycatch; loss of food Ø Commercial extinction Ø Aquaculture- collectively involves fish farming and ranching; salmon and shrimp

Environmental impacts of aquaculture • Transgenic salmon (top) can compete with or spread disease to wild salmon (bottom) when they escape from fish farms. Figure 9. 20

aquaculture 3 methods used to catch fish: trawl bag drift net purse-seine

Trade-Offs Aquaculture Advantages Highly efficient High yield in small volume of water Increased yields through crossbreeding and genetic engineering Can reduce overharvesting of conventional fisheries Little use of fuel Profit not tied to price of oil High profits Disadvantages Large inputs of land, feed, And water needed Produces large and concentrated outputs of waste Destroys mangrove forests Increased grain production needed to feed some species Fish can be killed by pesticide runoff from nearby cropland Dense populations vulnerable to disease Tanks too contaminated to use after about 5 years

Solutions More Sustainable Aquaculture • Reduce use of fishmeal as a feed to reduce depletion of other fish • Improve pollution management of aquaculture wastes • Reduce escape of aquaculture species into the wild • Restrict location of fish farms to reduce loss of mangrove forests and other threatened areas • Farm some aquaculture species (such as salmon and cobia) in deeply submerged cages to protect them from wave action and predators and allow dilution of wastes into the ocean • Set up a system for certifying sustainable forms of aquaculture

Sustainable agriculture • Agriculture that can practiced the same way far into the future • Does not deplete soils faster than they form • Does not reduce healthy soil, clean water, and genetic diversity essential for long-term crop and livestock production • Low-input agriculture = small amounts of pesticides, fertilizers, water, growth hormones, fossil fuel energy, etc. • Organic agriculture = no synthetic chemicals used. Instead, biocontrol, composting, etc.

Organic farming • Small percent of market, but is growing fast – 1% of U. S. market, but growing 20%/yr – 3– 5% of European market, but growing 30%/yr Organic produce: • Advantages for consumers: healthier; environmentally better • Disadvantages for consumers: less uniform and appealing -looking; more expensive

Conclusions: Challenges • Chemical pesticides pollute, and kill pollinators, and pests evolve resistance. • GM crops show promise for social and environmental benefits, but questions linger about their impacts. • Much of the world’s crop diversity has vanished. • Feedlot agriculture and aquaculture pose benefits and harm for the environment and human health.

Conclusions: Challenges • Organic farming remains a small portion of agriculture. • Human population continues to grow, requiring more food production. • Soil erosion is a problem worldwide. • Salinization, waterlogging, and other soil degradation problems are leading to desertification. • Grazing and logging, as well as cropland agriculture, contribute to soil degradation.

Conclusions: Solutions • Biocontrol and IPM offer alternatives to pesticides. • Further research and experience with GM crops may eventually resolve questions about impacts, and allow us to maximize benefits while minimizing harm. • More funding for seed banks can rebuild crop diversity. • Ways are being developed to make feedlot agriculture and aquaculture safer and cleaner.

Conclusions: Solutions • Organic farming is popular and growing fast. • Green revolution advances have kept up with food demand so far. Improved distribution and slowed population growth would help further. • Farming strategies like no-till farming, contour farming, terracing, etc. , help control erosion. • Government laws, and government extension agents working with farmers, have helped improve farming practices and control soil degradation. • Better grazing and logging practices exist that have far less impact on soils.

Solutions Sustainable Agriculture Increase Decrease High-yield polyculture Soil erosion Organic fertilizers Soil salinization Biological pest control Aquifer depletion Integrated pest management Overgrazing Irrigation efficiency Perennial crops Overfishing Loss of biodiversity Crop rotation Loss of prime cropland Use of more waterefficient crops Food waste Soil conservation Subsidies for unsustainable farming and fishing Subsidies for more sustainable farming and fishing Population growth Poverty

What Can You Do? Sustainable Agriculture • Waste les food • Reduce or eliminate meat consumption • Feed pets balanced grain foods instead of meat • Use organic farming to grow some of your food • Buy organic food • Compost your food wastes

REVIEW QUESTIONS!

QUESTION: Review Integrated pest management may involve all of the following EXCEPT… ? a. Close population monitoring b. Biocontrol c. Exclusive reliance on pesticides d. Habitat modification e. Transgenic crops

QUESTION: Review What do seed banks do? a. Lend money to farmers to buy seeds b. Pay farmers to store seeds c. Buy seeds from farmers d. Store seeds to maintain genetic diversity e. None of the above

QUESTION: Review Which is NOT a benefit of aquaculture? a. Provides a reliable protein source b. Reduces pressure on natural fisheries c. Produces no waste d. Uses fewer fossil fuels than commercial fishing e. All of the above are benefits

QUESTION: Weighing the Issues Can we call the green revolution a success? a. A huge success; it has saved millions from starvation because it increased food production to keep pace with population growth. b. Not a success; its environmental impacts have outweighed its claimed benefits. c. A success; its environmental impacts are balanced by the fact that it saved huge areas from deforestation.

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data With 500 kg of water, you could produce … ? a. 2 kg of protein from milk b. Protein from 50 chickens c. 750 kg of protein from beef d. 15 eggs Figure 9. 18 b

QUESTION: Viewpoints Should we encourage the continued development of GM foods? a. Yes; they will bring many health, social, and environmental benefits. b. No, we should adopt the precautionary principle, and not introduce novel things until we know they are safe. c. Yes, but we should proceed cautiously, and consider each new crop separately.

QUESTION: Review Which statement is NOT correct? a. Soil consists of disintegrated rock, organic matter, nutrients, and microorganisms. b. Healthy soil is vital for agriculture. c. Soil is somewhat renewable. d. Soil is lifeless dirt. e. Much of the world’s soil has been degraded.

QUESTION: Review The A horizon in a soil profile… ? a. Is often called the “zone of accumulation. ” b. Is often called “topsoil. ” c. Contains mostly organic matter. d. Is the lowest horizon, deepest underground.

QUESTION: Review Erosion occurs through… ? a. Deforestation. b. Excessive plowing. c. Overgrazing rangelands. d. Two of the above. e. All of the above.

QUESTION: Review Drip irrigation differs from conventional irrigation in that … ? a. It is much less efficient. b. It can cause salinization. c. Water is precisely targeted to plants. d. About 40% is wasted.

QUESTION: Weighing the Issues You are farming an extremely steep slope that is sunny and very windy. What strategies would you consider using? a. Crop rotation b. Contour farming c. Intercropping d. Terracing e. Shelterbelts f. No-till farming

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data Grain produced person has… ? a. Risen steadily b. Fallen sharply c. Increased since 1983 d. Decreased since 1983 Figure 8. 3