Chapter 13 Sex Differences Sex Stereotypes general beliefs

Chapter 13 – Sex Differences • Sex Stereotypes = general beliefs based on sex Masculine stereotype - Instrumental behavior - the active provider

Feminine stereotype - Expressive behavior - the nurturer

Maintenance of stereotypes 2 biases • Confirmatory bias Note examples of stereotype & view as proof • Selective inattention Inconsistencies ignored/explained

Sex stereotypes are schemas that organize our thinking • Can distort thinking & memory - easy to remember confirming examples - hard to remember contradictory ones

Impact of stereotypes • Evaluate people more positively if consistent with stereotype • Evaluate harshly if violate stereotype

• Men seen as able, women as giving effort for same male-typed achievement • Women still earn less for same job

Origins of Stereotypes • Home - parents treat kids differently from birth

• School: Teachers respond differentially - boys: success = ability failure = lack of effort - girls: success = effort & neatness failure = lack of ability

• Peers - children intolerant of sex-inconsistent behavior • Media - extremes of sex-typed behavior - more sex-typed than real life - children’s programming is the most sex-typed

• Cross-cultural results 110 non-industrialized societies consistent effects of sex stereotyping in socialization

% Societies where pressure greater Attribute Nurturance Obedience Responsibility Achievement Self-reliance For Boys 0 3 11 87 85 For Girls 82 35 61 3 0

• First goal is for all children to behave • Second goal is to socialize child to conform to sex stereotype

Actual Sex Differences • Physical differences - Sex characteristics - Size, strength

Abilities • Verbal abilities - girls

• Math abilities - girls in elementary school - boys during adolescence • Visual-spatial abilities - boys

Psychological/Behavioral Differences • Aggression - boys • Activity Level - boys

• Fear, timidity, & (lower) risk-taking - girls • Developmental vulnerability - boys

• Emotional sensitivity & nurturance - girls & boys • Compliance - girls

• Nature & size of the group differences - large overlap between groups - differences are consistent but small - differences smaller than 20 years ago - almost all differences are qualified - individual variability

• Reasons for differences - innate, biological differences - socialization

• Sum: differences exist • BUT sexes are more alike than different - more unlike individuals of own sex than average member of other sex - cannot make predictions about individuals

Sex Typing Identification with own sex • Gender/sex identity - knowledge of one’s sex and its permanence

• Initially categorize on superficial characteristics • By age 3 categorize self accurately - but do not realize sex is permanent • By 5 -7 know sex is unchanging & have stable identity based on sex

• Sex/gender roles - beliefs about what the sexes are supposed to be like & do Knowledge - by 2. 5, some - by 10, complete

• - Adherence to stereotypes in preschool, some flexibility by 6, no deviation allowed by 10, more flexible again 12 -15 = intolerance young adults = more flexible middle age = less sex-typed

• Transition times = more rigid => more rigid at times when sex identification is more relevant

Sex-Typed Behavior Favor activities typed for own sex • By 14 -22 months, prefer sex-typed toys • 18 -24 mo = no opposite-sex toys • By 2 years for girls & 3 for boys, prefer same-sex playmates • Maccoby & children’s play styles

• Sex differences - boys adopt sex-typed behavior & preferences quicker - girls more likely to retain cross-sex interests • Boys = more pressure to conform

• Stability of sex-typing - fairly stable from childhood to adulthood - but some flexibility

Theories of Sex Role Development • Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud) - social & biological factors - everyone is bisexual at birth - sexual identity = identification with samesex parent

• Biosocial Theory (Money & Ehrhardt) - biology channels development - via child’s & others’ reactions

• Social Learning Theory (Bandura, Mischel) - parents influence sex development by: 1. direct instruction - reinforcement & punishment - encourage sex-typed behavior by age 2 - dads/peers

2. observational learning - imitate same-sex models - reinforced for this imitation BUT - doesn’t address children’s own motivation

• Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Kohlberg) - sex-role development depends on cognitive development - children actively socialize themselves - 1 st establish stable gender identity - then seek models & information

- Role of developing cognitive abilities & child’s motivation - encourage sex-role development at 6+ years - BUT children show sex-typed behavior before they have stable identity

• Gender-Schema Theory — cognitive (Martin & Halverson) - children motivated to be consistent - self-socialize as soon as have basic gender identity (age 2 -3) - role of gender schemas

Integration - biosocial, social learning & cognitive • Biosocial - biology leads people to label children by sex & treat differentially • Social learning - early (0 -3) sex-typing from others’ teaching & encouragement • Cognitive - cognitive milestones & child’s own desires aid sex-typing (age 2 -3+)