Chapter 12 Nervous Tissue Copyright 2009 John Wiley

Chapter 12 Nervous Tissue Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1

Overview of the Nervous System n n n The nervous system, along with the endocrine system, helps to keep controlled conditions within limits that maintain health and helps to maintain homeostasis. The nervous system is responsible for all our behaviors, memories, and movements. The branch of medical science that deals with the normal functioning and disorders of the nervous system is called neurology. Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2

Major Structures of the Nervous System Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3

Overview of Major Structures n n n Twelve pairs of cranial nerves. Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord. Ganglia, located outside the brain and spinal cord, are small masses of nervous tissue, containing primarily cell bodies of neurons. Enteric plexuses help regulate the digestive system. Sensory receptors are either parts of neurons or specialized cells that monitor changes in the internal or external environment. Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4

Functions of Nervous System n n n Sensory function: to sense changes in the internal and external environment through sensory receptors. q Sensory (afferent) neurons serve this function. Integrative function: to analyze the sensory information, store some aspects, and make decisions regarding appropriate behaviors. q Association or interneurons serve this function. Motor function is to respond to stimuli by initiating action. q Motor(efferent) neurons serve this function. Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 5

Nervous System Divisions n Central nervous system (CNS) q n consists of the brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) q q consists of cranial and spinal nerves that contain both sensory and motor fibers connects CNS to muscles, glands & all sensory receptors Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6

Structure of a Multipolar Neuron Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 7

Histology of the Nervous System: Neurons n n Functional unit of nervous system Have capacity to produce action potentials q n electrical excitability Cell body q q single nucleus with prominent nucleolus Nissl bodies (chromatophilic substance) n q q q n rough ER & free ribosomes for protein synthesis neurofilaments give cell shape and support microtubules move material inside cell lipofuscin pigment clumps (harmless aging) Cell processes = dendrites & axons Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 8

Structural Classification of Neurons Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 9

Axonal Transport n Cell body is location for most protein synthesis q n neurotransmitters & repair proteins Axonal transport system moves substances q slow axonal flow n n q movement in one direction only -- away from cell body movement at 1 -5 mm per day fast axonal flow n n moves organelles & materials along surface of microtubules at 200 -400 mm per day transports in either direction for use or for recycling in cell body Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 10

Sensory receptors that are dendrites of unipolar neurons Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 11

CNS Neurons Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12

Neuroglia of the CNS n n n Most common glial cell type Each forms myelin sheath around more than one axons in CNS Analogous to Schwann cells of PNS Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 13

Neuroglia of the PNS n n Cells encircling PNS axons Each cell produces part of the myelin sheath surrounding an axon in the PNS Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 14

Myelinated and unmyelinated axons n n n Schwann cells myelinate (wrap around) axons in the PNS during fetal development Schwann cell cytoplasm & nucleus forms outermost layer of neurolemma with inner portion being the myelin sheath Tube guides growing axons that are repairing themselves Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 15

Myelinated and unmyelinated axons Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 16

Organization of the Nervous System Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 17

Subdivisions of the PNS n Somatic (voluntary) nervous system (SNS) q q n neurons from cutaneous and special sensory receptors to the CNS motor neurons to skeletal muscle tissue Autonomic (involuntary) nervous systems q q sensory neurons from visceral organs to CNS motor neurons to smooth & cardiac muscle and glands n n n sympathetic division (speeds up heart rate) parasympathetic division (slow down heart rate) Enteric nervous system (ENS) q q involuntary sensory & motor neurons control GI tract neurons function independently of ANS & CNS Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 18

Electrical Signals in Neurons n n Neurons are electrically excitable due to the voltage difference across their membrane Communicate with 2 types of electric signals q q n action potentials that can travel long distances graded potentials that are local membrane changes only In living cells, a flow of ions occurs through ion channels in the cell membrane Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 19

Overview of Nervous System Functions Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 20

Types of Ion Channels n Leakage (nongated) channels are always open q q q n Ligand-gated channels open and close in response to a stimulus q n n nerve cells have more K+ than Na+ leakage channels as a result, membrane permeability to K+ is higher explains resting membrane potential of -70 m. V in nerve tissue results in neuron excitability Voltage-gated channels respond to a direct change in the membrane potential. Mechanically gated ion channels respond to mechanical vibration or pressure. Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 21

Ion channels in plasma membrane Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 22

Resting Membrane Potential n Negative ions along inside of cell membrane & positive ions along outside q q n potential energy difference at rest is -70 m. V cell is “polarized” Resting potential exists because q q concentration of ions different inside & outside n extracellular fluid rich in Na+ and Cl n cytosol full of K+, organic phosphate & amino acids membrane permeability differs for Na+ and K+ n 50 -100 greater permeability for K+ n inward flow of Na+ can’t keep up with outward flow of K+ n Na+/K+ pump removes Na+ as fast as it leaks in Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 23

Resting Membrane Potential Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 24

Factors that contribute to resting membrane potential Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 25

Graded Potentials n Small deviations from resting potential of -70 m. V q q n n hyperpolarization = membrane has become more negative depolarization = membrane has become more positive The signals are graded, meaning they vary in amplitude (size), depending on the strength of the stimulus and localized. Graded potentials occur most often in the dendrites and cell body of a neuron. Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 26

Hyperpolarized/Depolarized Graded Potential Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 27

Graded potentials in response to opening mechanically-gated channels or ligandgated channels Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 28

Stimulus strength and graded potentials Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 29

Summation Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 30

Generation of Action Potentials n An action potential (AP) or impulse is a sequence of rapidly occurring events that decrease and eventually reverse the membrane potential (depolarization) and then restore it to the resting state (repolarization). q q q During an action potential, voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels open in sequence ( According to the all-or-none principle, if a stimulus reaches threshold, the action potential is always the same. A stronger stimulus will not cause a larger impulse. Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 31

Action Potentials Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 32

Stimulus strength and Action Potential generation Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 33

Changes in ion flow during depolarizing and repolarizing phases of Action Potential Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 34

Depolarizing Phase n n n Chemical or mechanical stimulus caused a graded potential to reach at least (-55 m. V or threshold) Voltage-gated Na+ channels open & Na+ rushes into cell q in resting membrane, inactivation gate of sodium channel is open & activation gate is closed (Na+ can not get in) q when threshold (-55 m. V) is reached, both open & Na+ enters q inactivation gate closes again in few ten-thousandths of second q only a total of 20, 000 Na+ actually enter the cell, but they change the membrane potential considerably(up to +30 m. V) Positive feedback process Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 35

Repolarizing Phase n n n When threshold potential of -55 m. V is reached, voltage-gated K+ channels open K+ channel opening is much slower than Na+ channel opening which caused depolarization When K+ channels finally do open, the Na+ channels have already closed (Na+ inflow stops) K+ outflow returns membrane potential to -70 m. V If enough K+ leaves the cell, it will reach a -90 m. V membrane potential and enter the after-hyperpolarizing phase K+ channels close and the membrane potential returns to the resting potential of -70 m. V Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 36

Refractory period n n Period of time during which neuron can not generate another action potential Absolute refractory period q q q n even very strong stimulus will not begin another AP inactivated Na+ channels must return to the resting state before they can be reopened large fibers have absolute refractory period of 0. 4 msec and up to 1000 impulses per second are possible Relative refractory period q q a suprathreshold stimulus will be able to start an AP K+ channels are still open, but Na+ channels have closed Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 37

Continuous versus Saltatory Conduction Continuous conduction (unmyelinated fibers) q n step-by-step depolarization of each portion of the length of the axolemma Saltatory conduction q q depolarization only at nodes of Ranvier where there is a high density of voltage-gated ion channels current carried by ions flows through extracellular fluid from node to node Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 38

Propagation of an Action Potential in a neuron after it arises at the trigger zone Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 39

Factors that affect speed of propagation n Amount of myelination n Axon diameter n Temperature Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 40

Speed of impulse propagation n The propagation speed of a nerve impulse is not related to stimulus strength. q n larger, myelinated fibers conduct impulses faster due to size & saltatory conduction Fiber types q A fibers largest (5 -20 microns & 130 m/sec) n q B fibers medium (2 -3 microns & 15 m/sec) n q myelinated somatic sensory & motor to skeletal muscle myelinated visceral sensory & autonomic preganglionic C fibers smallest (. 5 -1. 5 microns & 2 m/sec) n unmyelinated sensory & autonomic motor Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 41

Signal Transmission at the Synapse n 2 Types of synapses q electrical n n q ionic current spreads to next cell through gap junctions faster, two-way transmission & capable of synchronizing groups of neurons chemical n one-way information transfer from a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic neuron q q q axodendritic -- from axon to dendrite axosomatic -- from axon to cell body axoaxonic -- from axon to axon Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 42

Signal transmission at the chemical synapse Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 43

Chemical Synapses n n n Action potential reaches end bulb and voltage-gated Ca+ 2 channels open Ca+2 flows inward triggering release of neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft & binding to ligand-gated receptors q n n the more neurotransmitter released the greater the change in potential of the postsynaptic cell Synaptic delay is 0. 5 msec One-way information transfer Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 44

Signal transmission at a chemical synapse Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 45

Excitory and Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials n The effect of a neurotransmitter can be either excitatory or inhibitory q a depolarizing postsynaptic potential is called an EPSP n n q it results from the opening of ligand-gated Na+ channels the postsynaptic cell is more likely to reach threshold an inhibitory postsynaptic potential is called an IPSP n n n it results from the opening of ligand-gated Cl- or K+ channels it causes the postsynaptic cell to become more negative or hyperpolarized the postsynaptic cell is less likely to reach threshold Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 46

Ionotropic and Metatropic Receptors Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 47

Removal of Neurotransmitter n Diffusion q n Enzymatic degradation q n move down concentration gradient acetylcholinesterase Uptake by neurons or glia cells q q neurotransmitter transporters Prozac = serotonin reuptake inhibitor Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 48

Three Possible Responses n Small EPSP occurs q n An impulse is generated q q n potential reaches -56 m. V only threshold was reached membrane potential of at least -55 m. V IPSP occurs q q membrane hyperpolarized potential drops below -70 m. V Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 49

Summation n n If several presynaptic end bulbs release their neurotransmitter at about the same time, the combined effect may generate a nerve impulse due to summation Summation may be spatial or temporal. Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 50

Spatial Summation n Summation of effects of neurotransmitters released from several end bulbs onto one neuron Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 51

Temporal Summation n Summation of effect of neurotransmitters released from 2 or more firings of the same end bulb in rapid succession onto a second neuron Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 52

Summation Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 53

Neurotransmitters n n Both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters are present in the CNS and PNS; the same neurotransmitter may be excitatory in some locations and inhibitory in others. Important neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, glutamate, aspartate, gamma aminobutyric acid, glycine, norepinephrine, and dopamine. Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 54

Neurotransmitters Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 55

Neurotransmitter Effects n Neurotransmitter effects can be modified q q n Agonist q n synthesis can be stimulated or inhibited release can be blocked or enhanced removal can be stimulated or blocked receptor site can be blocked or activated anything that enhances a transmitters effects Antagonist q anything that blocks the action of a neurotranmitter Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 56

Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters n Acetylcholine (ACh) q q q n released by many PNS neurons & some CNS excitatory on NMJ but inhibitory at others inactivated by acetylcholinesterase Amino Acids q q glutamate released by nearly all excitatory neurons in the brain ---- inactivated by glutamate specific transporters GABA is inhibitory neurotransmitter for 1/3 of all brain synapses (Valium is a GABA agonist -enhancing its inhibitory effect) Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 57

Neural Circuits n n A neuronal network may contain thousands or even millions of neurons. Neuronal circuits are involved in many important activities q q q breathing short-term memory waking up Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 58

Neural Circuits Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 59

Regeneration & Repair n Plasticity maintained throughout life q q q n sprouting of new dendrites synthesis of new proteins changes in synaptic contacts with other neurons Limited ability for regeneration (repair) q q PNS can repair damaged dendrites or axons CNS no repairs are possible Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 60

Damage and Repair in the Peripheral Nervous System n n When there is damage to an axon, usually there are changes, called chromatolysis, which occur in the cell body of the affected cell; this causes swelling of the cell body and peaks between 10 and 20 days after injury. By the third to fifth day, degeneration of the distal portion of the neuronal process and myelin sheath (Wallerian degeneration) occurs; afterward, macrophages phagocytize the remains. Retrograde degeneration of the proximal portion of the fiber extends only to the first neurofibral node. Regeneration follows chromatolysis; synthesis of RNA and protein accelerates, favoring rebuilding of the axon and often taking several months. Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 61

Repair within the PNS n Axons & dendrites may be repaired if q q q n neuron cell body remains intact schwann cells remain active and form a tube scar tissue does not form too rapidly Chromatolysis q 24 -48 hours after injury, Nissl bodies break up into fine granular masses Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 62

Repair within the PNS n By 3 -5 days, q q n wallerian degeneration occurs (breakdown of axon & myelin sheath distal to injury) retrograde degeneration occurs back one node Within several months, regeneration occurs q q neurolemma on each side of injury repairs tube (schwann cell mitosis) axonal buds grow down the tube to reconnect (1. 5 mm per day) Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 63

Neurogenesis in the CNS n n n Formation of new neurons from stem cells was not thought to occur in humans There is a lack of neurogenesis in other regions of the brain and spinal cord. Factors preventing neurogenesis in CNS q inhibition by neuroglial cells, absence of growth stimulating factors, lack of neurolemmas, and rapid formation of scar tissue Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 64

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