Chapter 12 LifeSpan Development Amanda Moreno Prenatal Phase

Chapter 12: Life-Span Development Amanda Moreno

Prenatal Phase Approximate age is conception through birth n Highlights include rapid physical development of the nervous system and the body n

Stages of the Prenatal Period n Zygote stage n n n Zygote: cell formed at conception Lasts about 2 weeks Zygote divides many times, begins to form internal organs n Embryo stage n n n Lasts about 6 weeks Marked by rapid development Heart begins to beat, brain functions Major body structures begin to form Sexual development begins

Sexual Development XX chromosomes=female n XY chromosomes=male n Gonads: precursor to sex organs n Androgens: sex hormones produced by testes, spur development of male sex organs n Figure 12. 1, page 373 n

Fetal Stage Third and final stage n Lasts for about seven months n Begins with the appearance of bone tissue n Ends with birth n

Threats to Prenatal Development Teratogens: Substances that can cause birth defects, such as drugs (prescription or illegal), alcohol, and cigarettes n Mother malnourishment n Number one cause of birth defects? n

Infancy and Childhood Phases n Infancy n n n Birth to 2 years Motor development Attachment to primary caregiver n Childhood n n n 1. 5 years to 12 Logical thinking Abstract reasoning Motor skill refinement Peer influences

Motor Development n Reflexes present at birth n n n Rooting Sucking Swallowing n Patterns of motor development n n See Figure 12. 2, page 375 Maturation: A relatively stable change in thought, behavior or physical of growth due to the aging process

Perceptual Development n Perception of Patterns n n Salapatek’s (1975) study, results shown on page 376, Figure 12. 3 By 3 mos. , babies prefer seeing facial patterns (Rosser, 1994) n Perception of Space n n Gibson and Walk (1960) and the visual cliff Stereopsis: depth perception gained fron each eye’s slightly different view

Critical Periods Specific timeframes for experiences to occur in order to have normal development n Applies to behavioral, perceptual and cognitive abilities n Stresses importance of interaction between organism and environment n

Cognitive Development n The importance of the environment n Watson and Ramey’s (1972) study with mobiles and movement, Figure 12. 4, page 377 n Retardation of infants raised in unstimulating environments

Jean Piaget’s Work Cognitive Structures: Rules or mental representations used to understand the world and solve problems n Schemata: representations or rules for a specific category of behavior; encompasses execution and context of behavior n

Piaget’s Basic Concepts Assimilation: New experiences are changed to fit old schemata n Accomodation: Old schemata are changed by new experiences; results in new schemata or modified existing ones n

Piaget’s 4 Periods of Cognitive Development n Sensorimotor n n Birth to 2 years Object Permanence Deferred imitation Symbolic thinking n Preoperational n n 2 to 6 or 7 years Increased symbolic thought ability Egocentrism Not yet able to solve conservation problems

Piaget’s Periods (cont’d) n Concrete operational n n 6 or 7 years to 11 years Mastery of conservation Understand categorization No abstract thinking n Formal operational n n 11 years and up Abstract thinking and hypothetical thought

Criticisms of Piaget Some studies show that conservation can occur earlier than proposed when appropriate tasks used n Children can be less egocentric than Piaget thought n Did not always define terms operationally n

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Culture plays a significant role in cognitive development n Studies support this hypothesis n Language serves as basis for cognitive development in remembering, problem solving, etc. n Importance of social interactions n

Case’s M-Space Model n Mental Space (MSpace: much like short-term memory, functions to process info from the environment n Variables involved in expansion of MSpace n n n Brain maturation (physical capacity) Practice effects Acquisition of central conceptual structures

Fischer’s Skill Model Cognitive development requires skill learning n Optimal Level of Skill Performance: brain’s maximal capacity for processing information n New skills are acquired, practiced and perfected--lead to increases in reasoning and abstract thought n

TV and Cognitive Development n Content n Sesame Street vs. Jerry Springer n Commercials aimed toward kids n Medium n “Mesmerizing effects” n Replacing reading or activity n Attention span n Cognitive passiveness

Social Development Attachment: the lasting social and emotional bond between the infant and the caregiver n Interactions between infant and parent are crucial to attachment n Cultural variables have a strong influence in the attachment behaviors n

Attachment Behaviors n n Sucking Cuddling n n Harlow’s (1974) monkeys and surrogate mothers Looking n n Figure 12. 8, p. 389 Tronick et al, 1978 n Smiling n n An effective reinforcer for both baby and parent Crying n n Different patterns may serve different purposes Negative reinforcement effect

The Nature of Attachment n Stranger Anxiety: Fearful responses exhibited in the presence of strangers n Separation Anxiety: Fearful responses made when the caregiver leaves the infant

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test of attachment that exposes the infant to events or stimuli that can cause distress n Secure Attachment: Ideal pattern of attachment n Resistant Attachment: Tension present in mother-child relation n Avoidant Attachment: Infant ignores mother n

Interactions with Peers Harlow’s Monkeys--Early social contact is crucial to forming later relationships n Isolation effects can be eliminated with “therapist monkeys” n Fuhrman, Rahe and Hartup (1979) generalized these results to human children n

Parenting Approaches Authoritarian parents: firm rules and punishment for breaking them n Permissive parents: few rules, not very many consequences n Authoritative parents: establish and enforce rules, but make allowances and explain consequences n

Single-Parent and Divorced Families Child’s development--similar to children from traditional family if mother finishes school and has social support n Younger children more negatively affected by divorce n Decreased parent conflict and interaction w/both parents reduce adverse affects n

Development of Gender Roles Gender identity: an individual’s own sense of being male or female n Gender roles: cultural expectations about the behaviors of men and women n Gender stereotypes: beliefs about the differences between men and women, has a strong effect on one’s acquisition of gender roles and identity n

Gender Differences n Girls: n n n Develop earlier verbally Express and interpret emotion more effectively More compliant with adults and peers n Boys: n n Show stronger spatial abilities Show more aggression Are more likely to take risks More likely to have developmental problems

Causes of Gender Role Differences n Biological Causes n n Exposure to male sex hormones in the brain Differences in cognitive ability, reproduction issues may be results of evolution n Cultural Causes n n Perceptions of boys and girls by adults and peers Socialization by parents

Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development n Moral Realism: n n From 5 to 10 years Egocentrism Blind adherence to rules Can consider only the outcomes of an act, not the intent n Morality of cooperation: n n n Begins at 10 years Rules are more flexible because they are social conventions Can consider the effects of acts on others as well

Kolhberg’s Theory n Preconventional Level n n Morality of punishment and obedience Morality of naïve instrumental hedonism n Conventional Level n n Morality of maintaining good relations Morality of maintaining social order

Kohlberg (cont’d) n Postconventional Level n Morality of social contracts n Morality of universal ethical principles n Morality of cosmic orientation n n Very few people reach this level See Table 12. 3, page 398

Criticisms of These Theories Piaget’s idea of moral realism may extend to adults in certain situations n Kohlberg and the wording of Heinz’s dilemma n Kohlberg’s theory gender-biased? n

Adolescent Phase n 13 years to about 20 years n End of this phase is culturally influenced Thinking and reasoning become more “adultlike” n Identity crisis n Continued peer influences n

Physical Development in Adolescence Puberty: The period of the maturation of the reproductive system, starts the transition into adulthood n Gonads secrete sex hormones that cause the development of both primary and secondary sex characteristics n

Social Development n Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development n People will encounter crises in social relations n Resolving these conflicts results in development n Psychosocial development never ends n See Table 12. 4, page 401

Marcia’s 4 Identity Statuses Crisis Commitment YES NO NO Identity Achieved Foreclosure Moratorium Identity Diffusion

Identity and Self-Perception Adolescents begin to expand their definitions of themselves using values or social characteristics n Sexual behavior increases n Friendships deepen n Family conflicts n Variable mood states n

The Phases of Adulthood and Old Age n Adulthood n n 20 years to 65 years Love and marriage Career Stability, then decrease in physical ability n Old Age n n n 65 years until death Reminiscing Physical health deteriorates Preparation for death Death

Cognitive Development n Alzheimer’s Disease n Occurs in ~5% of the population n Most prevalent form of dementia n Progressive loss of memory and other mental functions n Associated with lower levels of acetylcholine, degeneration of the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, esp. association cortex of frontal & temporal lobes

Cognitive Development (cont’d) Depression: another cause of mental deterioration n Crystallized and fluid intelligence n n Abstract reasoning capacity (fluid) declines with age n Older people excel in crystallized intelligence n Speed of responses go down

Social Development n Erikson’s Stages in Adulthood n Intimacy vs. Isolation n Generativity vs. Stagnation n Integrity vs. despair n Levinson’s Crises n Early in adulthood n Mid-Life

Death n Kubler-Ross’ 5 Phases of Coping with Death n Denial n Anger n Bargaining n Depression n Acceptance

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