Chapter 11 Raising Children in a Diverse Society

Chapter 11 Raising Children in a Diverse Society

Chapter Outline § § § Parenting in the Twenty-First Century America Gender and Parenting What Do Children Need? Experts Advise Authoritative Parenting Social Class and Parenting

Chapter Outline § § § Racial/Ethnic Diversity and Parenting Grandparents as Parents Foster Parents and Adult Children Toward Better Parent-Child Relationships

Raising Children § § This chapter discusses the parenting process in the U. S. , a society that is diverse economically, by race/ethnicity, and in terms of family structure. Parenting is influenced by the ways that gender, race/ethnicity, and social class interconnect, or overlap within a family structure or form.

Parents in the Twenty-First Century America § § § Married couples – 64% of families with a joint child under 18. Single-mother families – 24. 6% Multipartnered Fertility: a person’s having children with more than one partner. § Can mean that a father resides, perhaps temporarily, with one or more of his children, but not with others

Family Groups with Children under 18, 2009

Parenting Challenges and Resilience § Positive factors influencing parenting: § Parents have higher level of education today than in the past, including formal knowledge about child development and child-raising techniques. § Fathers are more emotionally involved than several decades ago.

Parenting Challenges and Resilience § Positive factors influencing parenting: § Technology § The internet provides information for parents regarding just about any situation § Communication technologies allow for more contact and engagement

Parenting Challenges and Resilience § § Parents face challenges and difficulties, and can make mistakes. Children, however, are resilient individuals—that is, they can demonstrate the capacity to recover from or rise above adverse situations and events.

Ways that the Social Environment makes Parenting Difficult § § § Parenting role conflicts with the working role, with work taking precedence. A pluralistic society characterized by diverse and conflicting values Anxiety about the influence of parenting via increased parenting advice Sandwich generation: Caring for young children and for older family members Assistance to parents has decreased.

A Stress Model of Parental Effectiveness § Stress that parents experience—from sources such as job demands, financial worries, concerns about neighborhood safety, feeling stigmatized due to stereotypes—causes: § parental frustration § anger and depression § increasing likelihood of household conflict

A Stress Model of Parental Effectiveness § § § This leads to poorer parenting practices: § inconsistent discipline § limited parental warmth or involvement § lower levels of trust and communication Poorer child outcomes result. Having social support mediates this adverse relationship.

Stress Model of Effective Parenting

The Transition to Parenthood § § § In a classic analysis, social scientist Alice Rossi analyzed the transition to parenthood. Rossi compared circumstances in assuming the parent role with those of other adult roles, such as worker or spouse. The transition to parenthood, Rossi asserts, is more difficult than the transition to these other roles for several reasons.

The Transition to Parenthood § § Less time available for relaxation Declines in emotional and sexual relationship Employed mothers with established egalitarian relationships with husbands may find their role becoming more traditional. If relationship was high quality prior to parenthood, the transition was easier.

The Transition to Parenthood § § The transition to parenthood can be difficult for a number of reasons, including upset schedules and lack of sleep. Many fathers are more involved with parenting than in the past—a situation that increases marital satisfaction and parents’ confidence.

The Transition to Parenthood § Paradox of Parenting § New parents feel overwhelmed. § The motivation to overcome stress comes from the stressor. § The child is a source of love, joy, and satisfaction.

Stages of Parenting § § § Transition to parenthood Parents with babies Parents with preschoolers Parents with school-age children Parents with adolescents Parents with young adult children

Gender and Parenting § § According to cultural tradition, mothers assume primary responsibility for child rearing. § Psychological Parent: Holds major emotional responsibility for safety and upbringing Historically fathers have been breadwinners, not expected to be engaged in daily activities/responsibilities.

Gender and Parenting § § § Today, fathers are expected to also actively participate in the child’s care. Family members adapt culturally understood roles to their own situations. Individuals “do” family.

Doing Motherhood § § Mothers engage in more hands-on parenting than do fathers. Take primary responsibility Mothers define quality time as having heart-toheart talks or engaging in child-centered activities. Fathers define quality time as being at home, and being available if needed.

Single Mothers § § § 38% of births occur to unmarried women. Single Mothers by Choice: women tend to be in their 30 s/40 s, middle or upper-middle class, European American, and highly educated Single Mothers by Circumstance: report feeling stigmatized, but evidence creative and resilient as they construct support networks

Time with Children § § One survey shows that given work and other demands, more than half of mothers wish they had more time with their children. One way that these mothers cope with time pressures is by taking their toddlers to yoga class.

Doing Fatherhood § § § Fathers’ involvement positive cognitive, emotional, and behavioral outcomes Fathers’ absence adverse effects on children’s cognitive, moral, and social development Social Fathers: nonbiological fathers in the role of fathers, such as stepfathers § Does not improve the adolescents’ outcomes

Doing Fatherhood § § § Fathers more typically play with and participate in more engage in leisure activities with children. Better educated fathers with more satisfying jobs showed a higher level of parenting engagement. Experiencing workplace stressors adds to fathers’ stress, resulting in less effective parenting.

Doing Fatherhood § Married-Couple Families with Stay-at-Home Father § In 2008, 140, 000 families had stay-at-home fathers. § Experiences speak to joys and challenges of parenting

Doing Fatherhood § Single Fathers § Nearly 2 million single fathers § Typically assumed role because they “stepped up” § Resist and challenge stereotypes of masculinity and parenting

Doing Fatherhood § Nonresident Fathers § Biological or adoptive fathers who do not live with one or more of their children § Majority maintain some presence in their children’s lives § Involvement largely depends on relationship with the mother

What Do Children Need? § § § Encouragement Adequate nutrition and shelter Parental interest in their schooling Consistency in rules and expectations Guidance congruent with the child’s age or development level

The children in this family have different needs that correspond with their varied ages. Meanwhile all children need encouragement along with consistent parental expectations and rules. Authoritative parents are emotionally involved with their children, setting limits while encouraging them to develop and practice their talents.

Experts Advise Authoritative Parenting § Parenting Style: a general manner of relating to and disciplining children § Authoritarian § Permissive § Authoritative

Authoritarian Parenting Style § § § Low on emotional warmth and nurturing High on parental direction and control More likely to spank children or use otherwise harsh punishment

Permissive Parenting Style § § Low on parental direction or control High on emotional nurturing Characterized as indulgent and leading to a a “spoiled” child Emotional neglect—low on both parental direction and emotional support

Authoritative Parenting Style § § Positive Parenting Warm, firm, and fair Combines emotional nurturing and support with conscientious parental direction Children do better in school and are socially competent.

Parenting Styles

Experts Advise Authoritative Parenting § Psychological Control versus Authoritative Control § Psychological control involves using manipulative strategies such as inducing guilt or withdrawing signs of affection.

A Closer Look at Family Diversity: Parenting LGBT Children § § How might the stress model of effective parenting be applied to this situation of a LGBT child’s coming out to her or his parents? How might an authoritarian parent’s reaction to their child’s coming out differ from the response of an authoritative parent?

Spanking § § § Spanking refers to hitting a child with an open hand without causing physical injury. Analysis of data from the 13, 000 respondents in the National Survey of Families and Households show that about 1/3 of fathers and 44% of mothers had spanked their children during the week prior to being interviewed. Recent research shows that corporeal punishment has generally negative effects.

Social Class and Parenting § § § Socioeconomic Status (SES): one’s position in society, measured by educational achievement, occupations, and/or income Decisions are influenced by social conditions that expand or limit one’s options – all opportunities and experiences (life chances) are influenced by SES. Family education and income have more influence on parenting behaviors and children’s outcomes than do race/ethnicity or family structure.

Social Class and Parenting § Middle- and Upper-Middle-Class Parents § Can better afford to provide for their children’s needs and wants § Have fewer children § Emphasize concerted cultivation of their child’s talents and development

Social Class and Parenting § Middle- and Upper-Middle-Class Parents § Concerted Cultivation § Often praise their children, play with them, read to them, create and enforce rules about watching TV, engage their children in extracurricular activities, take them on outings, enroll them in private or charter schools, and say there are people in their neighborhood they can count on.

Social Class and Parenting § Middle- and Upper-Middle-Class Parents § Volunteer at the children’s school, thus securing educational advantages for their child § Likely to get parenting information from professional sources § Negotiate with their children in ways meant to foster language and critical thinking skills – self-direction, initiative, and self-advocacy

Social Class and Parenting § Hyper-Parenting—The “Hurried Child” and the “Helicopter Parents” § Hyperparenting: parents who hover above, meddling excessively in their children’s lives § The over-scheduled or “hurried child” is forced to assume too many challenges and responsibilities too soon.

Social Class and Parenting § Hyper-Parenting—The “Hurried Child” and the “Helicopter Parents” § Hurried children may achieve in adult ways at a young age, but they also suffer the stress induced by the pressure to achieve. § Or they may “drop out” and abandon goaldirected academic and/or extracurricular activity.

Social Class and Parenting § Working-Class Parents § View concerted development parenting model as negative, creating demanding children § Tend to follow the facilitation of natural growth parenting model, according to which children’s abilities are allowed to develop naturally

Social Class and Parenting § Working-Class Parents § Tend to be authoritarian, emphasizing obedience and conformity § More likely to tell children what to do rather than persuade them with reason § Encourage children to keep their thoughts and questions to themselves

Social Class and Parenting § Working-Class Parents § Working-class children likely to grow up with feelings of discomfort, constraint, and distrust regarding school and work experiences § This sense of not fitting in can persist into professional careers.

Social Class and Parenting § Low-Income and Poverty-Level Parents § Difficult to establish support systems § Hinders children’s chances for educational success § Struggle to give children a few “extras” § Less likely to live in neighborhoods that value education or high achievement § Parental control more difficult § Decreased mental and physical health

Social Class and Parenting § Homeless Families § Families with children are among the fastestgrowing segments of the homeless population. § Families benefit from shelters, but these too can be stressful. § Regulations regarding bedtimes, mealtimes, keeping children quiet; requirement that children be kept with parent at all times

Homeless Families benefit from homeless shelters, but living there can be stressful in itself.

Racial/Ethnic Diversity § § There is considerable overlap among class and racial/ethnic categories. There is considerable ethnic diversity within racial/ethnic categories.

African American Parents § § As with other minorities, African-Americans’ parental attitudes and behaviors are similar to other parents in their socioeconomic status. The intersection of gender and race with SES means this father, expected to be an effective breadwinner, also risks race discrimination as he navigates a job search in a recession economy.

Native American Parents § § § Exercise a permissive parenting style Demonstrate resilience Extended family serves as an instrument of group solidarity by reinforcing cultural standards and lending practical assistance

Asian American Parents § § Characterized as authoritarian Confucian training doctrine: blends parental love, concern, involvement, and physical closeness with strict and firm control

Parents of Multiracial Children § § § Nearly 7 million Americans are of mixed race. Tension over cultural values and attitudes Multi-racial/ethnic families that foster an explicit identify as multicultural, multiracial, or multiethnic have happier, better-adjusted children.

Grandparents As Parents § § § Grandfamilies: Grandparent families More than 3. 6 million children under 18 are living in a grandparent’s household. About 11% of U. S. grandparents are raising grandchildren.

Foster Care § § § A significant portion of foster care is family foster care—foster care that takes place in a trained and licensed foster parent’s home. Some specialized foster family homes are available for children with specific and complex emotional or medical needs. It is estimated that more than 500, 000 children are in foster care.

Facts about Families: Foster Parenting § § § From the structure-functional perspective, discussed in Chapter 2, foster parents are functional alternatives to biological or adoptive parents. What are some ways, do you think, that the foster parent system is functional? What are some instances in which it could be dysfunctional?

Parenting Young Adult Children § § § Parent-child relationships often grow closer and less conflicted as adolescents make the transition to adult roles. More young adult children either do not leave the home, or return as “boomerangers” after college, divorce, or upon finding first jobs unsatisfactory. Residence-sharing agreements are suggested.

Toward Better Parenting § Optimal parenting involves: § § § § Supportive family communication Involvement in a child’s life and school Private safety nets Adequate economic resources Workplace policies that facilitate a healthy workfamily balance Safe and healthy neighborhoods Society-wide policies that bolster all parents

Quick Quiz

1. Fathers typically engage in more handson parenting and take primary responsibility for children. a) True b) False

Answer: False § Fathers do not typically engage in more hands-on parenting and do not take primary responsibility for children.

2. Research shows that spanking is usually more effective than timeouts. a) True b) False

Answer: False § Research shows that spanking is not usually more effective than timeouts.

3. The transition to parenthood is more difficult than the transition to worker or spouse. Which of the following is NOT one of the reasons for this? a) Parenting is more challenging than work roles or spousal roles. b) Cultural pressure encourages adults to become parents even though they may not really want to. c) Most parents approach parenting with little or no experience in child care. d) Adjusting to parenthood necessitates changes in the couple’s relationship.

Answer: a § The transition to parenthood is more difficult than the transition to worker or spouse. That parenting is more challenging than work roles or spousal roles is NOT one of the reasons for this.

4. _____ parents would agree with the statements “I communicate rules clearly and directly, ” “I consider my child’s wishes and opinions along with my own when making decisions, ” and “I expect my child to act independently at an age-appropriate level. ” a) Authoritarian b) Laissez-faire c) Punitive d) Authoritative

Answer: d § Authoritative parents would agree with the statements “I communicate rules clearly and directly, ” “I consider my child’s wishes and opinions along with my own when making decisions, ” and “I expect my child to act independently at an ageappropriate level. ”