CHAPTER 11 Ladders Knowledge Objectives List and describe

CHAPTER 11 Ladders

Knowledge Objectives • • • List and describe the parts of a ladder. Categorize the different types of ladders. Inspect ladders. Maintain ladders. Clean ladders. Describe when, where, and who performs service testing on ladders. • Specify the hazards with ladders.

Knowledge Objectives • Itemize the measures fire fighters should take to ensure safety when working with and on ladders. • Cite the factors and guidelines used to select the appropriate ladder from the fire apparatus. • Determine appropriate ladder placement for common fire-ground tasks • Describe how to remove a ladder from the apparatus. • Describe how to lift ladders.

Skills Objectives • Inspect, clean, and maintain a ladder. • Carry a portable ladder using the one-fire fighter carry. • Carry a portable ladder using the two-fire fighter shoulder carry. • Carry a portable ladder using the three-fire fighter shoulder carry. • Carry a portable ladder using the two-fire fighter suitcase carry.

Skills Objectives • Carry a portable ladder using the three-fire fighter suitcase carry. • Carry a portable ladder using the three-fire fighter flat carry. • Carry a portable ladder using the four-fire fighter flat carry. • Carry a portable ladder using the three-fire fighter flat-shoulder carry. • Carry a portable ladder using the four-fire fighter flat-shoulder carry.

Skills Objectives • Raise a ladder using the one-fire fighter flat raise for ladders less than 14 ft (4. 2 m). • Raise a portable ladder using the one-fire fighter flat raise for ladders more than 14 ft (4. 2 m). • Tie the halyard. • Raise a ladder using the two-fire fighter beam raise. • Raise a ladder using the two-fire fighter flat raise.

Skills Objectives • Raise a ladder using the three-fire fighter flat raise. • Raise a ladder using the four-fire fighter flat raise. • Climb a ladder. • Use a leg lock to work from a ladder. • Deploy a roof ladder. • Inspect a chimney.

Introduction • Ladders are among the most useful, versatile, durable, easy -to-use, and rapidly deployable fire fighter tools. • Every fire fighter must be proficient in working with ladders. © Jones & Bartlett Learning

Primary Uses of Ground Ladders • Can be used to gain access to a window or roof • Provides an escape path for fire fighters and a means to evacuate people trapped in a fire • Can be used as a safe pathway between floors • Can be used as a working platform and to support a hose line • Can be used to bridge a small opening • Can be placed to climb over an obstruction • Can help funnel water out of a building

Other Uses of Ground Ladders • To provide escape from below-grade locations such as a ravine, embankment, trench, or manhole • A ladder A-frame can lower rescuers or raise or lower victims safely. • To provide access to and egress from buses, railcars, or airplanes • Can be used as ramps to assist with moving equipment

Ladder Construction and Components • Ladders must meet NFPA 1931. • Basic requirements include diameter and spacing of rungs; specific labels and markings; and length and width requirements. • Made of metal, wood, or fiberglass • In its most basic design, a ladder consists of two beams connected by a series of parallel rungs. – Fire service ladders are specialized tools with several parts.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman. Basic Ladder Components

Basic Ladder Components: Beams • One of two main structural components that run the length of the ladder or ladder sections • Sides of ladder that support the rungs and carry the load to the ground • Three types of beams: – Trussed beam – I-beam: Thick sections at top and bottom connected by a thinner section – Solid beam

Basic Ladder Components: Types of Beams © Jones & Bartlett Learning

Basic Ladder Components • Rungs – Crosspiece that spans the two beams of a ladder – Serves as steps and distributes user’s weight – Must be skid-resistant • Tips – The very top of the ladder

Basic Ladder Components • Butt – End of the ladder that is placed against the ground • Butt spurs – Metal spikes attached to the butt of a ladder • Butt plates – A swiveling plate attached to the butt (an alternative to butt spurs) – Incorporates both a spur and a cleat or pad

Basic Ladder Components • Roof hooks – Spring-loaded, retractable, curved metal pieces attached to the tip of a roof ladder – Used to secure the ladder to the peak of a pitched roof

Basic Ladder Components © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman. • Heat sensor label changes colors when the ladder has been exposed to specific heat conditions that could damage the structural integrity of the ladder

Basic Ladder Components • Protection plates – Reinforcing pieces placed at chafing and contact points that prevent damage from friction or contact with other surfaces • Tie rods – A metal bar that runs from one beam of the ladder to the other to keep the beams from separating – Typically found in wood ladders

• Assembly of two or more ladder sections fitted together in a manner that allows the ladder to be extended or retracted. • Extension ladders have additional parts © Jones & Bartlett Learning Extension Ladder Components

Extension Ladder Components • Bed section – Widest section – Serves as the base • Fly section – Part that is raised or extended from the bed section – Each fly section extends from the previous section

Extension Ladder Components • Guides – Strips of metal or wood that guide a fly section as it is extended • Halyard – Rope or cable used to extend or hoist the fly sections

Extension Ladder Components • Pawls – Mechanical locking devices used to secure the fly sections of an extension ladder • Pulley – Small grooved wheel used to change the direction of the halyard pull

Stops and Staypoles • Stops – Pieces of wood or metal that prevent the fly sections from overextending and collapsing • Staypoles – Long metal poles attached to the top of the bed section – Help stabilize the ladder as it is raised and lowered

• May be classified as aerial ladders, elevated platforms, and water towers A and B: © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman. Aerial Apparatus

Aerial Ladders • Permanently mounted, power-operated ladders • Have at least two sections • Straight chassis: straight-stick aerials • Tractor trailer chassis: tillered aerials © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman.

Elevating Platform Apparatus • A passenger-carrying platform (bucket) attached to the tip of a ladder or boom • Ladder-type boom is most common • A platform less than 110 ft (33. 5 m) in length must have a prepiped waterway and permanently mounted monitor nozzle.

Water Towers • Ladder or boom must have at least two sections, which may be: – Telescoping – Articulating (jointed) • Do not have the capacity to carry fire fighters or rescue victims.

Ground Ladders • Carried on most fire apparatus – Designed to be removed from the apparatus and used in different locations • May take the form of – General-purpose ladders (straight or extension) – Specialized ladders (folding or roof ladders)

Ground Ladders • Engines/pumpers are required to carry at least – One straight ladder with roof hooks – One extension ladder – One folding ladder – Usually carry 24 - (7. 3 -) or 28 -ft (8. 5 -m) ladders • Truck companies are required to carry at least – Two straight ladders with roof hooks – Two extension ladders – One folding ladder – Usually carry 35 - (10. 6 -) or 40 -ft (12. -2 m) ladders

Straight Ladder • Single-section, fixed-length ladder • May also be called wall ladders or single ladders • Commonly 12 to 14 ft (3. 6– 4. 2 m) long, but can be up to 20 ft (6 m) long

Roof Ladder • Straight ladder with roof hooks • Sometimes called a hook ladder • Provides stable footing • Usually 12 to 18 ft (3. 6– 5. 4 m) long

• Adjustable length • Multiple sections • Usually heavier than a straight ladder of the same length • Can be stored where other ladders do not fit © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman. Extension Ladder

• Extension ladder with staypoles • Staypoles are planted in the ground on either side for additional stability. Courtesy of Duo-Safety Ladder Corporation Bangor Ladder

• Convertible from a straight ladder to an Aframe, stepladder • Convenient for use indoor and in tight spaces • Generally 6 to 10 ft (1. 83. 0 m) (A-frame) and 10 to 15 ft (3. 0 -4. 6 m) (extension) © Jones & Bartlett Learning Combination Ladder

• Also called an attic ladder • Narrow, collapsing ladder • Two beams fold in for enhanced portability • Commonly available in to 14 -ft (2. 4 -4. 3 m) lengths © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman. Folding Ladder

• Narrow, two-section ladder • Can be used in tight spaces • Commonly available in 10 to 14 ft (3. 0– 4. 3 m) lengths Courtesy of Duo-Safety Ladder Corporation Fresno Ladder

Inspection, Maintenance, and Service Testing • Ground ladders must be able to withstand extreme conditions. – NFPA 1931 establishes requirements for the construction of new ladders. – Requirements are based on probable conditions during emergency operations. • Portable ladders must be regularly inspected, maintained, and fire-service tested following NFPA 1932 and manufacturer recommendations.

Inspection • Ground ladder visually inspected monthly or after each use – Beams: Check the beams for cracks, splintering, breaks, gouges, checks, wavy conditions, or deformations. – Rungs: Check all rungs for snugness, tightness, punctures, wavy conditions, worn serrations, splintering, breaks, gouges, checks, or deformations.

Inspection – Halyard: Check the halyard for fraying or kinking; ensure that it moves smoothly through the pulleys. – Wire-rope halyard extensions: Check the wire-rope halyard extensions on three- and four-section ladders for snugness. This check should be performed when the fly section is fully bedded to ensure that the upper sections will align properly during operation.

Inspection – Ladder guides: Check the guides for chafing. Also check for adequate wax, if the manufacturer requires wax. – Pawls: Check the pawls for properation. – Butt spurs: Check the butt spurs for excessive wear or other defects. – Heat sensors: Check the heat sensor labels to see whether the sensors indicate that the ladder has been exposed to excessive heat.

Inspection – Bolts and rivets: Check all bolts and rivets for tightness; bolts on wood ladders should be snug and tight without crushing the wood. – Welds: Check all welds on metal ladders for cracks or apparent defects. – Roof hooks: Check the roof hooks for sharpness and properation. – Metal surfaces: Check metal surfaces for signs of surface corrosion.

Inspection – Fiberglass and wood surfaces: Check fiberglass ladders for loss of gloss on the beams. Check for damage to the varnish finish on wooden ground ladders. Check for signs of wood rot. • If inspection reveals any deficiencies, remove the ladder from service and have it repaired. • Ladders that have been exposed to excessive heat should pass a service test before being used again.

Maintenance • Clean and lubricate the pawls. • Clean and lubricate the guides on extension ladders. • Replace worn halyards and wire rope. • Clean and lubricate roof hooks. • Check heat sensor labels. • Maintain the finish on wooden and fiberglass ladders in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. • Keep records of all maintenance.

Maintenance © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman.

Maintenance • Place ladders in storage racks or brackets out of direct sunlight. – Sunlight can damage fiberglass. © Jones & Bartlett Learning

Cleaning • Ladders must be cleaned to remove road grime and dirt that build up during storage on the apparatus. • Ladders should be cleaned before each inspection to ensure that any hidden faults can be observed. • Clean ladders regularly and after each use with warm, soapy water and a soft-bristle brush. • Rinse and dry the ladder before storing it.

Service Testing • Periodically test ladders in accordance with NFPA 1932. • Test new ladders before use and at least annually thereafter. • Ladders that have been exposed to extreme conditions or overloaded must be removed from service until they have passed a service test. • Test ladders after any repairs before placing back in service.

Horizontal Bending Test • Evaluates the structural strength of a ladder • Measures amount of bending caused by applied weight • Performed by outside contractors • Maintain service and testing records Courtesy of UL.

Ladder Safety • Several potential hazards are associated with ladder use. – Easily overlooked in an emergency • Use with caution and follow manufacturers’ recommendations. • Full turnout gear and personal protective equipment (PPE) are essential for safety. • Fire fighters must be able to work on ladders with self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).

Lifting and Moving Ladders • Teamwork is essential when working with ladders. – Some ladders are heavy and awkward to maneuver, especially when extended. – Use proper lifting techniques. – Coordinate all movements. • Never attempt to lift or move a ladder that weighs more than you are capable of lifting safely; it is better to ask for help than to become injured.

Placement of Ground Ladders • Survey area before placing ladder. • Always check for overhead wires and other obstructions. • Place on stable and level surfaces. • Avoid heat and direct flame. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman.

Working on a Ladder • Check the climbing angle before climbing. • Position the base of the ladder out from the building at a distance equal to ¼ of the ladder’s height. • Ensure the pawls are locked and the halyard is tied before climbing. • Secure the base by heeling/footing. – Use a rope or strap to secure the tip of the ladder to the building.

Working on a Ladder © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman.

Working on a Ladder • Do not exceed ladder’s rated weight. • Distribute weight along the length of the ladder. • Be prepared for falling debris, misguided hose streams, and people falling from the building. • Be prepared to climb down quickly.

Rescue • Place the tip of the ladder at or slightly below the windowsill. – The ladder should not occlude any part of the window opening. • Be wary of the actions of people you are attempting to rescue. • Make verbal contact with the victims. • Safeguard victims as they climb. • Use another fire fighter to guide you and the victim down the ladder.

Ladder Damage • Ladders may be easily damaged while in use. • Remove from service any ladder used outside of normal limits. – Remove ladder even if no damage is visible

Ladder Selection • Be familiar with all ladders carried. • Ensure ladder is long enough. – Floor-to-floor height (residential): 8 -10 ft (2. 4 -3. 0 m) – Floor-to-windowsill height (residential): 3 ft (0. 9 m) – Floor-to-floor height (commercial): 12 ft (3. 7 m) – Floor-to-windowsill height (commercial): 4 ft (1. 2 m)

• Length depends on use of ladder. • Roof access – Ladder tip should extend several feet or five rungs above roofline. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman. Ladder Selection

• Window access – Ladder tip should be at the side of and even with the top of a window. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman. Ladder Selection

Ladder Selection • Window rescues – Ladder tip should be at the windowsill. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman.

Ladder Selection • Proper climbing angle is 75 degrees to the ground. – Ladder will need to be slightly longer than the vertical distance between the ground and the target. – Approximately one additional foot for each 15 ft (4. 6 m) of vertical height

Removing the Ladder From Apparatus • Know which ladders are stored on the apparatus and where they are positioned. – Ladders are often nested one inside another and mounted on brackets on the side of an engine. – Ladders can also be stored on overhead hydraulic lifts. – On some vehicles, ladders are stored in compartments under the hose bed or aerial device.

Removing the Ladder from Apparatus Courtesy of Dennis Wetherhold, Jr. © Jones & Bartlett Learning

Lifting Ladders • Use sufficient assistance to lift heavy ladders. • Know the lifting commands and procedures. • Use good lifting techniques. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman.

Carrying Ladders • Basic types: – Shoulder carry – Suitcase carry – Flat shoulder carry • Carries can be done in combinations of two, three, or four fire fighters.

• General area chosen by officer in charge • Specific area chosen by fire fighter • Place the ladder at the correct angle. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman. Placing a Ladder: Site Selection

Placing a Ladder: Site Selection • Calculate vertical reach. • Place the ladder on a stable, level surface. • Avoid manhole covers or trap doors • Away from doors or high-traffic areas. © Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Raising a Ladder • Use a beam raise when ladder must be raised parallel to the target. • Use a flat raise when ladder must be raised perpendicular to the target. • The number of fire fighters required for a raise depends on – Length and weight of the ladder – Available clearance from obstructions

Raising a Ladder • Tying the halyard – Keeps it out of the way – Provides a backup to the dogs for securing the fly section • Fly section orientation – Ladder manufacturer will specify. – Metal or fiberglass ladders are generally used fly section out.

Securing the Ladder • Heeling the ladder – Standing under ladder, pull back into structure. – Place a foot against each beam. • A rope, rope-hose tool, or webbing can be used to secure a ladder. • Tie the bottom and/or top of ladder to prevent it from kicking out/pulling away. • The best method is to secure both the tip and the case.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman. Securing the Ladder

Climbing the Ladder • Always climb deliberately and with control. • Ensure ladder, pawls, halyard are properly secured. • Check climbing angle. • Climb slowly; avoid bouncing or shifting. • Eyes should be focused forward. • Wear proper PPE and lower face shield. • Hoist tools by rope if possible. • Do not overload ladder.

Dismounting a Ladder • Ensure roof or floor is solid and stable before dismounting. • Maintain contact with ladder at three points. • Do not shift weight until you have tested the footing. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman.

• Use a ladder belt or a leg lock to secure yourself to the ladder. – Use designed and certified belts. – Utility belts should not be used. • Do not attempt work from a ladder without properly securing yourself first. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman. Working from a Ladder

Placing a Roof Ladder • Several methods can be used to properly position a roof ladder on a sloping roof.

Descending a Ladder • Apply the same safety practices as climbing. • Take time to ensure that – The ladder is at an appropriate angle. – The ladder is on stable footing. – Someone is heeling or footing the ladder. • Communicate to the person footing the ladder that you are about to descend. • Check that the rungs are not slippery.

Descending a Ladder • Maintain a secure grip on tools or lower on a rope. • Face the ladder, keeping your back perpendicular with the ground and your arms almost fully extended. – Maintain three-point contact. – Descend slowly, avoid sudden movements, and stay in the middle of the ladder. • Unless it is an emergency, one person descends at a time.

Inspect a Chimney • Many calls due to chimney-related emergencies • Access can be hazardous.

General Safety Rules • • Wear appropriate PPE. Choose the proper ladder for the job. Choose the proper number of people. Move smoothly, safely, and efficiently, keeping the ladder under control. • Lift with your legs. • Use proper hand foot placement. • Look overhead for wires and obstructions.

General Safety Rules • Allow the heel person to take charge of raising and lowering the ladder. • After extending an extension ladder, check the pawls and halyard. • Check the ladder for the proper angle. • Ensure that the wall or roof will support the ladder before climbing it. • Use an appropriate leg lock or ladder belt.

Summary • Ladders provide safe access and egress from inaccessible areas. • Ladders have a wide variety of uses in nonfirefighting situations, including ravines or steep highway embankments, trench rescue situations, below-grade locations such as manholes, vehicle extrication situations, or hazardous materials incidents.

Summary • Ladders are made of metal, wood, and fiberglass. • The two main structural components of the ladder are the beam and the rung. The beams support the rungs and carry the load of the fire fighter from the rungs down to the ground. • There are three basic types of ladder beam construction: trussed beam, I-beam, and solid beam.

Summary • Many wooden ladders have solid beams. Rectangular aluminum beams, which are usually hollow or C-shaped, are also classified as solid beam ladders. • The rung is a crosspiece that spans the two beams of the ladder. Most ground ladders in fire departments have aluminum rungs, but wooden ladders are still constructed with wood rungs.

Summary • Additional parts of a typical ground ladder include the following components: • Rail • Truss block • Tie rod • Tip • • • Butt spurs Butt plate Roof hooks Heat sensor label Protection plates

Summary • An extension ladder is an assembly of two or more ladder sections that fit together and can be extended or retracted to adjust the length of the ladder. Additional parts of an extension ladder include: • • Bed (base) section Fly section Guides Halyard Pawls Pulley Stops Staypoles

Summary • There are two general categories of ladders: aerial and ground. Aerial ladders are permanently mounted and operated from a fire apparatus. Ground ladders are carried on fire apparatus and removed from the apparatus to be used in other locations. • Ground ladders include general-purpose ladders such as straight or extension ladders.

Summary • Most truck companies are required to carry at least two straight ladders with roof hooks, two extension ladders, and one folding ladder. • A straight ladder is a single-section, fixed-length ground ladder. • A roof ladder is a straight ground ladder with retractable hooks at one end. • An extension ladder is an adjustable-length ground ladder with multiple sections.

Summary • Bangor ladders are extension ladders with staypoles for added stability. • A combination ladder can be converted from a straight to a stepladder configuration or from an extension to a stepladder configuration. • A folding (attic) ladder is a narrow, collapsible ladder designed to allow access to attic scuttle holes and confined areas. • A Fresno ladder is a narrow, two-section extension ladder to provide attic access.

Summary • A ground ladder should be inspected visually after every use. If the inspection reveals any deficiencies, the ladder must be removed from service until repairs are made. • All fire fighters should be able to perform routine ladder maintenance, including cleaning the ladders to remove any road grime and dirt. Ladders should be cleaned after every use. • Service testing of ground ladders must follow NFPA 1932.

Summary • Safety precautions should be followed from the time a ladder is removed from the apparatus until it is returned to the apparatus. Full turnout gear and PPE are essential for working with ground aerial ladders. Additional general safety rules include the following: – Lift with your legs; keep your back straight. – Look overhead for wires and obstructions. – Check the pawls and halyards. – Check the ladder angle.

Summary • When positioning a ladder for rescue, place the tip of the ladder at or slightly below the windowsill. This provides a direct pathway to enter and exit the window. • Communication is key to coordinating efforts when working with ladders. One leader should be designated, and his or her commands should be followed during carries and raises.