CHAPTER 11 BUILDING RESOURCE CAPABILITIES AND ORGANIZING THE

CHAPTER 11 BUILDING RESOURCE CAPABILITIES AND ORGANIZING THE WORK EFFORT Screen graphics created by: Jana F. Kuzmicki, Ph. D, Mississippi University for Women Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1

“The best game plan in the world never blocked or tackled anybody. ” Vince Lombardi “Flat organizations of empowered people are critical to gaining quick decisions in a global marketplace that moves at Net speed. ” “Quote” John Byrne Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter Outline u Strategy Implementation Framework u Principle Strategy-Implementing Tasks u Leading the Implementation Process u Building a Capable Organization è Staffing the Organization è Building Core Competencies and Competitive Capabilities è Matching Organization Structure to Strategy l Identifying Strategy-Critical Activities u Organizational Structures of the Future Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3

Implementing and Executing Strategy u Action-oriented, operations-driven activity revolving around managing people and business processes u Tougher and more time-consuming than crafting strategy Implementation u Success depends on doing a involves. . . good job of è Leading è Motivating è Working with others è Creating fits between requirements for good strategy execution and how organization conducts its business Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4

Why Implementing and Executing Strategy is a Tough Management Job u Demanding variety of managerial activities that have to be performed u Numerous ways to tackle each activity u Requires good people management skills u Requires launching and managing a variety of initiatives simultaneously u Number of bedeviling issues to be worked out u Battling resistance to change u Hard to integrate efforts of many different work groups into a smoothly-functioning whole Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 5

Implementing a Newly Chosen Strategy Requires Adept Leadership u Implementing a new strategy takes adept leadership to è Convincingly communicate reasons for the new strategy è Overcome pockets of doubt è Build consensus and enthusiasm è Secure commitment of concerned parties è Get all implementation pieces in place and coordinated Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 6

Characteristics of the Strategy Implementation Process u Every manager has an active role u No 10 -step checklists u Few concrete guidelines u Least charted, most open-ended part of strategic management u Cuts across many aspects of “how to manage” Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7

Characteristics of the Strategy Implementation Process (continued) u Each implementation situation occurs in a different context, affected by differing è Business practices and competitive situations è Work environments and cultures è Policies è Compensation incentives è Mix of personalities and firm histories u Approach to implementation has be customized to fit the situation u People implement strategies - Not companies! Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 8

Figure 11. 1: The Eight Components of Implementing and Executing Strategy Allocating Resources Building a Capable Organization Exercising Strategic Leadership Shaping Corporate Culture to Fit Strategy Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Establishing Strategy. Supportive Policies Strategy Implementer’s Action Agenda Tying Rewards to Achievement of Key Strategic Targets Instituting Best Practices for Continuous Improvement Installing Support Systems Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 9

What are the Goals of the Strategy Implementing-Executing Process? u Unite total organization behind strategy u See that activities are done in a manner tightly matching first-rate strategy execution u Generate commitment so an enthusiastic crusade emerges to carry out strategy u Fit how the organization conducts its operations to the requirements of strategy Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 10

Who are the Strategy Implementers? u Implementation involves a company’s whole management team è Every organization unit and all employees have a role in the strategy implementing and executing process u CEO, senior executives, and heads of major departments must lead the process and orchestrate major initiatives è But they must rely on middle and lower-level managers to push things on the front line, seeing that strategy is well-executed on a daily basis Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11

Ways to Lead the Implementation and Execution Process u Take active, visible role or low-key, behind the scenes role u Make decisions authoritatively or based on consensus u Delegate much or little u Be personally involved in details or coach others to carry day-to-day burden u Proceed swiftly to achieve results or move deliberately, content with gradual progress Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 12

Factors Shaping How Managers Lead the Implementation Process u Experience and knowledge of business u New to job or seasoned? u Network of personal relationships u Diagnostic, administrative, interpersonal, and u u problem-solving skills How much authority they have Leadership style most comfortable with How they view their role in getting things done The organization’s situation Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 13

BUILDING A CAPABLE ORGANIZATION—WHAT IS INVOLVED? Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Figure 11. 2: The Components of Building a Capable Organization Staffing the Organization • Putting together a strong management team • Recruiting and retaining talented employees Building Core Competencies Competitive Capabilities and • Developing a competence/capability portfolio suited to current strategy • Updating and reshaping the portfolio as external conditions and strategy change AN ORGANIZATION CAPABLE OF GOOD STRATEGY EXECUTION Structuring the Organization and the Work Effort Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 15

Putting Together a Strong Management Team u Determine kind of core management team needed to execute the strategy u Find the right people to fill each slot è Existing management team may be suitable è Core executive group may need strengthening l Promote from within l Bring in skilled outsiders Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 16

Selecting the Management Team: Key Considerations u Determine mix of è Backgrounds è Experiences and know-how è Beliefs and values è Styles of managing and personalities u Personal chemistry must be right u Talent base needs to be appropriate u Picking a solid management team needs to be acted on early in implementation process Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 17

Recruiting and Retaining Talented Employees: Implementation Issues u Assemble the needed human resources and knowledge base for effective strategy execution u Biggest challenge facing companies building a future in the Internet Economy è How to recruit and retain the best and brightest talent with strong skill sets and management potential u Intellectual capital, not tangible assets, is increasingly being viewed as the most important investment è Talented people are a prime source of competitive advantage Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18

Key Human Resource Practices to Attract and Retain Talented Employees u Spend considerable effort in screening job applicants, selecting only those with è Suitable skill sets è Energy and initiative è Judgment and aptitudes for learning è Ability to adapt to firm’s work environment/culture u Put employees through training programs throughout their careers u Give employees challenging, interesting, and skills-stretching assignments Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 19

Key Human Resource Practices to Attract and Retain Talented Employees (continued) u Rotate employees through jobs with great content, spanning functional and geographic boundaries u Encourage employees to è Be creative and innovative è Challenge existing ways of doing things and offer better ways è Submit ideas for new products or businesses u Foster a stimulating and engaging work environment u Exert efforts to retain high-potential, high performing employees with excellent salary and benefits Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 20

Key Organization-Building Objectives u Staff organizational units with the specialized talents, skills, and technical expertise needed to develop and build core competencies u Build competitively valuable organizational capabilities Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 21

Power of Unique Competencies and Capabilities When it is difficult to outstrategize rivals with a superior strategy. . . Best avenue to industry leadership is to out-compete rivals with superior strategy execution! Building competencies and capabilities rivals can’t match is one of the best ways to outcompete them! Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 22

Strategically-Relevant Core or Distinctive Competencies u Greater proficiency in product development u Better manufacturing know-how u Capability to provide better after-sale service u Faster response to changing customer needs u Superior cost-cutting skills u Capacity to speed new products to market u Superior inventory management systems u Better marketing and merchandising skills u Specialized depth in unique technologies u Greater effectiveness in promoting union- management cooperation Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 23

Strategic Management Principle Building core competencies, resource strengths, and organizational capabilities that rivals can’t match is a sound foundation for sustainable competitive advantage ! Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 24

Example: Honda’s Core Competency Expertise in gasoline engine technology and small engine design Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 25

Example: Intel’s Core Competence Design of complex chips for personal computers Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 26

Example: Procter & Gamble’s Core Competencies Superb marketing-distribution skills and R&D capabilities in five core technologies - fats, oils, skin chemistry, surfactants, emulsifiers Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 27

Example: Sony’s Core Competence Expertise in electronic technology and ability to translate the expertise into innovative products—miniaturized radios and video cameras, TVs and VCRs with unique features, attractively designed PCs Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 28

Key Traits to Building Core Competencies 1. Rarely grounded in skills or know-how of a single department 2. Typically emerge from collaborative efforts of different work groups, requiring senior management oversight 3. Leveraging competencies into competitive advantage requires concentrating more effort and talent than rivals on strengthening competencies to create valuable organizational capabilities 4. Sustaining competitive advantage requires adapting competencies to new conditions Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 29

Developing Competitively Valuable Competencies u Involves è Managing human skills, knowledge bases, and intellect è Coordinating efforts of related work groups è Collaborative networking among internal groups and with external partners è Achieving dominating depth u Senior managers have to guide the process u Ongoing challenge: Broaden, deepen, or modify competencies and capabilities in response to market changes Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 30

Building Competencies: Keys to Success u Selecting superior u Motivation employees u Training u Cultural influences u Cooperation and collaboration u Empowerment Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin u Attractive incentives u Organizational flexibility u Short deadlines u Good databases Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 31

The Most Valuable Organizational Capabilities u Contribute heavily to better strategy execution u Provide a differentiating factor customers can see and value u Difficult for rivals to match è Time consuming to build è Difficult to purchase è Hard to replicate or imitate Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 32

Process of Building Organizational Capabilities 1. Develop ability to do something è Select people with relevant skills/experience è Upgrade individual abilities as needed è Mold work of employees into cooperative effort 2. As experience builds, ability can translate into a competence and/or capability 3. Capability becomes a distinctive competence, resulting in a potential competitive advantage Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 33

Process of Building Organizational Capabilities: Step 1 u Develop ability to do something è Select people with relevant skills/experience è Broaden or deepen individual abilities as needed è Mold efforts and work products of individuals into a cooperative group effort to create organizational ability Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 34

Process of Building Organizational Capabilities: Step 2 u As experience builds, such that the organization learns to accomplish the activity consistently well and at acceptable cost, the “ability” begins to translate into a competence and/or a capability u Capabilities emerge from establishing and nurturing collaborative working relationships between individuals and groups in departments and between a company and its external allies Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 35

Process of Building Organizational Capabilities: Step 3 u If mastery is achieved to the point where the organization has the capability to perform the activity better than rivals, the “capability” becomes a distinctive competence and holds potential for competitive advantage The optimal outcome of the capability-building process ! Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 36

Updating Competencies and Capabilities as Conditions Change u Competencies and capabilities must continuously be modified and perhaps even replaced with new ones due to è New strategic requirements è Evolving market conditions è Changing customer expectations u Ongoing efforts to keep core competencies up- to-date can provide a basis for sustaining both è Effective strategy execution and è Competitive advantage Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 37

Strategic Role of Employee Training u Plays a critical role in implementation when a firm shifts to a strategy requiring different è Skills-based competencies è Competitive capabilities è Managerial approaches è Operating methods u Types of training approaches è Internal “universities” è Orientation sessions for new employees è Tuition reimbursement programs è Online training courses Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 38

Matching Organization Structure to Strategy u Few hard and fast rules for organizing è The One Big Rule: The role and purpose of the organization structure is to support and facilitate good strategy execution! u Each firm’s structure is idiosyncratic, reflecting è Prior arrangements and internal politics è Executive judgments and preferences about how to arrange reporting relationships è How best to integrate and coordinate work effort of different work groups and departments CEO Vice President Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Vice President Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 39

Figure 11 -3: Structuring the Organization to Promote Successful Strategy Execution Identify strategy-critical value chain activities AN Decide value chain activities to perform internally and those to outsource Make internally-performed strategycritical value chain activities the main building blocks in the structure Decide how much authority to centralize at the top and how much to delegate to managers and employees Provide cross-unit coordination and collaboration to build/strengthen internal competencies and capabilities ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE MATCHED TO THE REQUIREMENTS OF SUCCESSFUL STRATEGY EXECUTION Provide the necessary collaboration and coordination with outsiders Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 40

Step 1: Identify Strategy-Critical Activities u Which activities are strategy-critical depends on è Particulars of a firm’s strategy è Value-chain make-up è Competitive requirements Critical activities è External market conditions u Identify strategy-critical activities 1. What business processes have to be performed extra well or in timely fashion to achieve competitive advantage? 2. In what value-chain activities would poor work performance impair strategic success? Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 41

Step 2: Potential Advantages of Outsourcing Non-Critical Activities u Decrease internal bureaucracies u Flatten organization structure u Speed decision-making u Provide firm with heightened strategic focus u Improve a firm’s innovative capacity u Increase competitive responsiveness Outsourcing makes strategic sense when outsiders can perform certain activities at a lower cost and/or with higher value-added. Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 42

Appeal of Outsourcing u Outsourcing non-critical activities allows a firm to concentrate its energies and resources on those value-chain activities where it è Can create unique value è Can be best in the industry è Needs strategic control to l Build core competencies l Achieve competitive advantage l Manage key customer-supplier-distributor relationships Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 43

Potential Advantages of Partnering u By building, improving, and then leveraging partnerships, a firm enhances its overall capabilities and builds resource strengths that è Deliver value to customers è Rivals can’t quite match è Consequently pave the way for competitive success Partnering makes strategic sense when the result is to enhance organizational capabilities. Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 44

Step 3: Make Strategy-Critical Activities the Main Building Blocks u Assign managers of strategy-critical activities a visible, influential position u Avoid fragmenting responsibility for strategy- critical activities across many departments u Provide coordinating linkages between related work groups è Meld into a valuable competitive capability Primary activities Strategic relationships Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Assign managers key roles Support functions Coordination Valuable capability Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 45

Strategic Management Principle Matching structure to strategy requires making strategy-critical activities and organizational units the main building blocks in the organization structure! Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 46

Why Structure Follows Strategy u Changes in strategy typically require a new structure è New strategy often involves different skills, different key activities, different staffing and organizational requirements è Hence, a new strategy signals a need to reassess the organization structure u How work is structured is a means to an end -- not an end in itself! Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 47

Guard Against Functional Designs That Fragment Activities u Scattering pieces of critical business processes across several specialized departments results in è Many hand-offs which l Lengthens completion time l Increases coordination and overhead costs l Increases risk of details falling through the cracks è Obsession with activity rather than result u Solution Business process reengineering è Involves pulling strategy-critical processes from functional silos to create process-complete departments or cross-functional work groups Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 48

Example: Fragmented Strategy-Critical Activities in a Functional Structure u Filling customer orders u Speeding new products to market u Improving product quality u Supply chain management u Building capability to conduct business via the Internet u Obtaining feedback from customers, making product modifications to meet their needs Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 49

Step 4: Determine How Much Authority to Delegate to Whom u In a centralized structure è Top managers retain authority for most decisions u In a decentralized structure è Managers and employees are empowered to make decisions u Trend in most companies è Shift from authoritarian to decentralized structures stressing empowerment Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 50

Advantages of Decentralized Decision-Making and Empowerment u Fewer management layers u Less bureaucracy u Shorter response times u More creativity and new ideas u Better motivation of employees u Greater employee involvement u Increased organizational capability Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 51

Principles Underlying the Global Trend Toward Decentralization and Empowerment 1. As the world economy moves into the Internet Age, traditional hierarchical structures must undergo radical surgery to capitalize on è External market and è Internal operating potential of e-commerce 2. Decisions are best made at the lowest organizational level capable to make timely, informed, competent decisions 3. Empowering employees to exercise judgment on job-related matters improves motivation and job performance Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 52

Step 5: Reporting Relationships and Cross-Unit Coordination u Classic method of coordinating activities - Have related units report to single manager è Upper-level managers have clout to coordinate/unify efforts of their units u Support activities should be woven into structure in ways to è Maximize performance of primary activities è Contain costs of support activities u Formal reporting relationships often need to be supplemented Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 53

Options to Supplement the Basic Organization Structure u Coordinating teams u Cross-functional task forces u Dual reporting relationships u Informal networking u Incentive compensation tied to group performance u Teamwork and inter- departmental cooperation Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 54

Step 6: Assign Responsibility for Collaboration With Outsiders u Need multiple ties at multiple levels to ensure è Communication è Coordination and control u Find ways to produce collaborative efforts to enhance firm’s capabilities and resource strengths u While collaborative relationships present opportunities, nothing valuable is realized until the relationship develops into an engine for better organizational performance Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 55

Roles of Relationship Managers With Strategic Partners u Get the right people together u Promote good rapport u See that plans for specific activities are developed and implemented u Help adjust internal procedures and communication systems to è Successfully link partners è Iron out operating dissimilarities è Nurture interpersonal ties Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 56

Perspectives on Organizing u All basic organization designs have strategy- related strengths and weaknesses u No ideal organization design exists u To do a good job of matching structure to strategy è Pick a basic design è Modify as needed è Supplement with appropriate coordinating, networking, and communication mechanisms to support effective execution of the strategy Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 57

Organizational Structures of the Future: Overall Themes u Revolutionary changes in how companies organize work have been triggered by è New strategic priorities è Rapidly shifting competitive conditions u Tools of organizational design include è Empowered managers and workers è Reengineered work processes è Self-directed work teams è Rapid incorporation of Internet technologies and cutting-edge e-commerce infrastructure è Networking with outsiders Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 58

Organizational Structures of the Future: Overall Themes u Traditional, authoritarian structures have often proved to be a liability where è Market conditions are fluid è Customer preferences shift from standardized to customized products è Product life-cycles grow shorter è Flexible manufacturing replaces mass production è Customers want to be treated as individuals è Pace of technological change accelerates Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 59

Organizational Structures of the Future: Requirements for Success u Decentralized structures with fewer managers u Small-scale business units u Reengineering to decrease fragmentation u Development of stronger and newer capabilities u Collaborative partnerships with outsiders u Empowerment and self-directed work teams u Lean staffing of corporate support functions u Electronic information systems u Accountability for results u Use of e-commerce in daily operations Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 60

Characteristics of Organizations of the Future u Fewer boundaries between è Different vertical ranks Change & è Functions and disciplines Learning è Units in different geographic locations è Firm and its suppliers, distributors, strategic allies, and customers The future u Capacity for change and learning structure will be. . . u Collaborative efforts among people in different functions and geographic locations u Extensive use of e-commerce technology and Internet business practices Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2001 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 61