CHAPTER 11 ADVERBS 1152020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 1 1152020

CHAPTER 11 ADVERBS 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 1

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Basic Notions 1 - The term ADVERB is used to include heterogeneous lexical terms which have few common characteristics. 2 - Traditionally, adverbs mean adverbs of time, adverb of place and adverbs of manner. 3 - Many adverbs end in (ly). 4 - Arab grammarians traditionally classify adverbs into ﻇﺮﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﺎﻥ and ﻇﺮﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻥ. 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 3

Functions of Adverbs 1 - They may be a constituent of a sentence. 2 - They may modify an another element of the sentence. - John is reading slowly. - John is here. - The food is really good. - The boys walked unusually slowly. 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 4

Types of Adverbs 1 - Adjunct (a constituent of a sentence) John is here. 2 - Disjunct (associated with the whole sentence) Frankly, only few of the boys are up to the normal standards. 3 - Conjunct (join the following sentence with what precedes) The rooms were crowded. Nobody, however, seemed to complain. 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 5

Criterion of Distinction The distinction of adverbs into adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts is based on their integration in a clause. 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 6

ADJUNCTS 1 - They cannot usually occur initially in a negative sentence: * Quickly he didn’t walk. 2 - They can be contrasted with another adverb in the interrogative sentence: Did he walk quickly or slowly? 3 - They can be contrasted with another adverb in the negative sentence: He didn’t walk quickly; he walked slowly. 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 7

Disjunct or Conjunct The main difference between disjunct and conjunct is related to attitude. Disjunct states something about the attitude of the speaker or about the content (frankly, obviously, briefly. Conjunct joins what has been said with what follows (therefore, besides). 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 8

ADJUNCTS 1 - adverbs of time 2 - adverbs of place 3 - adverbs of manner 4 - view point adjuncts : they are derived from nouns by adding (ly). They are paraphrased as ‘from the point of view of …) Politically, his statement implied warning and threat. 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 9

ADJUNCTS 4 - Focusing Adjuncts: they are either limiters (to limit what is said to a certain part of the sentence) or additive (to add the part on which the adjunct focuses). Limiters: only, just, merely, purely, simply, Additives: also, too, even - He only said this to please you. He also mentioned another point. 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 10

ADJUNCTS 5 - Intensifying Adjuncts: they indicate a point on the scale of intensification which may be high or low. They are of three types: i- emphasizers (scale upward) ii- amplifiers ( to scale upward from a certain point) iii- downtowners (scale downwards from a certain point) Emphasizers: definitely, obviously, frankly, honestly Amplifiers: absolutely, completely, entirely, thoroughly Downtowners: partly, slightly, hardly, barely, almost, nearly 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 11

ADJUNCTS 6 - Process Adjuncts: they comprise i- manner adjuncts (slowly, carelessly) ii- instrument (microscopically) iii- means (intonationally, figuratively) 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 12

ADJUNCTS 7 - Subject Adjuncts: These are associated with the agent of the sentence and the process. resentfully, bitterly, manfully 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 13

ADJUNCTS 8 - Formulaic Adjuncts: These adjuncts are normally used as markers of courtesy. kindly, humbly, cordially, please 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 14

ADJUNCTS 9 - Other kinds of Adjuncts Source adjuncts (from + place) Origin adjuncts (by + noun) Cause adjuncts (because + …. . ) 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 15

DISJUNCT Two types of disjuncts are identified: 1 - Style disjuncts: they may be paraphrased by using a clause in which the subject is the first person and the disjunct is replaced by a corresponding adjunct. - Strictly speaking, smoking is not allowed during the meeting. - Personally, I don’t believe what he has said. 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 16

DISJUNCT 2 - Attitudinal disjuncts: they express the opinion of the speaker concerning the content of the sentence. The speaker’s judgment is either conviction ( assuredly) or doubt (perhaps). - Possibly, they were delayed in the airport. - Fortunately, the heavy rains stopped on the third day. 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 17

CONJUNCTS 1 - Enumeration : first, secondly, … 2 - Reinforcing: further, also, moreover 3 - Equation: equally, likewise, similarly 4 - Transition: incidentally, now 5 - Summation: altogether, overall, then 6 - Apposition: namely, thus 7 - Result: accordingly, consequently 8 - Inference: else, otherwise, then 9 - Reformulation: better, rather 10 - Replacement: again, alternatively, rather 11 - Concession: anyhow, anyway, besides 12 - Antithesis: contrariwise, contrastingly, instead 13 - Temporal transition: meantime, meanwhile 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 18

ADVERBS IN ARABIC 1 - Adverbs in Arabic are heterogeneous. 2 - They belong traditionally to particles and nouns. 3 - Two kinds of particles: inseparable and separable. 4 - Inseparable particles is a small group comprising i- the interrogative ﺍﻟﻬﻤﺰﺓ ii- the futurity particle ﺱ iii- the particle ﻻ as in a) oaths ﻻ ﺟﺎﺯﻳﻨﻪ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻪ b) conditional sentence introduced by ﻟﻮ as in ﻟﻮ ﻻ ﻓﻌﻠﺖ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻟﻨﺪﻣﺖ c) emphatic sentences ﻻﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻛﻴﺪ as in ﺍﻧﻪ ﻟﺤﻜﻴﻢ These three functions of ﻻ are attitudinal disjuncts (certainly) 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 19

ADVERBS IN ARABIC Separable particle adverbs comprise a large. They are 30 particles found in your book. 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 20

ADVERBS IN ARABIC Adverbs are also a subclass of nouns. They are of two kinds: 1 - The first kind comprises a small group of nouns which are used either as prepositions (declinable) followed by a genitive noun , or as adverbs, in which case they are always put in the subjective case. ﻣﻦ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻣﻦ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺣﻴﺚ 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 21

ADVERBS IN ARABIC 2 - This subtype of adverbs comprises a large group of adverbs which are usually classified by Arab grammarians as nouns. They are in the objective case: ﺻﺒﺎﺣﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﺀﺍ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﺎ ﺩﺍﺧﻼ ﻟﻴﻼ ﻧﻬﺎﺭﺍ ﺷﻤﺎﻻ ﻏﺪﺍ ﺟﻨﻮﺑﺎ ﻻﺳﻴﻤﺎ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻻﻣﺤﺎﻟﺔ 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 22

ADVERBS IN ARABIC 11/5/2020 CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR 23