Chapter 10 Motivation and Emotion Defining Motivation and

Chapter 10 Motivation and Emotion

Defining Motivation, and a Model • Dynamics of behavior that initiate, sustain, direct, and terminate actions • Model of motivation – Need: Internal deficiency; causes drive – Drive: Energized motivational state (e. g. , hunger, thirst); activates a response – Response: Action or series of actions designed to attain a goal – Goal: Target of motivated behavior

Incentive Value • Goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need

Types of Motives • Biological motive: Innate (inborn) motives based on biological needs that must be met to survive e. g. , hunger, thirst • Stimulus motive: Needs for stimulation and information; appear to be innate, but not necessary for survival • Learned motive: Based on learned needs, drives, and goals e. g. , blogging

Homeostasis • Steady state of body equilibrium; balance

Circadian Rhythms • Cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal levels that vary on a schedule approximating a 24 -hour day • Pre-adaptation: Gradual matching of sleepwaking cycles to a new time schedule before an anticipated circadian rhythm change – e. g. , trying to adjust to new time zone to avoid jet lag • Melatonin: Hormone produced by pineal gland in response to light (production suppressed) and dark (production increased)

Jet Lag • Disturbed body rhythms caused by rapid travel east or west • Major time shifts (5 hours or more) can cause very slow adaptation • Direction of travel affects adaptation, and thus, severity of jet lag – Much easier to go east to west than west to east

Hunger • Hypoglycemia: Low blood sugar • Hypothalamus: Brain structure; regulates many aspects of motivation and emotion, including hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior • Feeding system: Area in the lateral hypothalamus that, when stimulated, initiates eating • Satiety system: Area in the ventromedial hypothalamus that terminates eating

Paraventricular Nucleus • Located in the hypothalamus; keeps blood sugar levels steady by starting and stopping eating

More on Eating Behavior • Neuropeptide Y (NPY): Substance in the brain that initiates eating; works on paraventricular nucleus in hypothalamus • Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1): Substance in brain that terminates eating • Set point: Proportion of body fat that is maintained by changes in hunger and eating; point where weight stays the same when you make no effort to gain or lose weight

The Final Word on Eating Behavior • Leptin: Substance released by fat cells that inhibits eating • External eating cues: Signs and signals linked with food

Taste • Taste aversion: Active dislike for a particular food – VERY difficult to overcome • Bait shyness: Unwillingness or hesitation by animals to eat a particular food

Behavioral Dieting • Weight reduction based on changing exercise and eating habits and not on temporary selfstarvation • Some keys – Start with a complete physical – Exercise – Be committed to weight loss

Behavioral Dieting (cont) • Observe yourself, keep an eating diary, and keep a chart of daily progress • Eat based on hunger, not on taste or learned habits that tell you to always clean your plate • Avoid snacks • Learn to weaken personal eating cues

Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa • Active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that seems to have psychological origins – Control issues seem to be involved – Very difficult to effectively treat – Overwhelmingly affects adolescent females • About 10% are male

Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa • Excessive eating (gorging) usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives – Difficult to treat – Prozac and Zoloft approved by FDA to treat bulimia nervosa • Affects more females than males – About 25% are male

Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa • Anorexics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of becoming fat; they think they are fat when the opposite is true • Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight; anorectics with perfect control • Anorexics will often be put on a “weight-gain” diet to restore weight • Treat with cognitive-behavioral techniques

Thirst • Extracellular thirst: When water is lost from fluids surrounding the cells of the body • Intracellular thirst: When fluid is drawn out of cells because of increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell – Best satisfied by drinking water

Pain Avoidance • An episodic drive • Occurs in distinct episodes when bodily damage takes place or is about to occur

Sex Drive • Sex drive: Strength of one’s motivation to engage in sexual behavior • Estrus: Changes in sex drives in animals, which creates a desire for sex; females in heat • Estrogen: A female sex hormone • Androgens: Male hormones • Non-homeostatic drive: Independent of bodily need states or physical deprivation cycles

Stimulus Drives • Reflect needs for information, exploration, manipulation, and sensory input • Arousal: Activation of the body and nervous system

Yerkes-Dodson Law • If a task is simple, it is best for arousal to be high; if it is complex, lower levels of arousal provide for the best performance • Arousal theory: Assumes people prefer to maintain ideal, or comfortable, levels of arousal • Sensation seeking: Trait of people who prefer high levels of stimulation

Test Anxiety • High levels of arousal and worry that seriously impair test performance

How to Cope With Test Anxiety • • Preparation Relaxation Rehearsal Restructuring thoughts

Learned Motives • Opponent-process theory: Strong emotions tend to be followed by an opposite emotional state; strength of both emotional states changes over time • Social motives: Acquired by growing up in a particular society or culture

Some Needs • Need for achievement (n. Ach): Desire to meet some internal standard of excellence • Need for power: Desire to have social impact or control over others

Abraham Maslow and Needs • Hierarchy of human heeds: Maslow’s ordering of needs based on presumed strength or potency; some needs are more powerful than others and thus will influence your behavior to a greater degree

Maslow’s Needs • Basic needs: First four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy – Lower needs tend to be more potent than higher needs • Love and belonging • Need for esteem and self-esteem • Growth needs: Higher-level needs associated with self-actualization • Meta-needs: Needs associated with impulses for self-actualization

Types of Motivation • Intrinsic motivation: Motivation coming from within, not from external rewards; based on personal enjoyment of a task or activity • Extrinsic motivation: Based on obvious external rewards, obligations, or similar factors

Emotions • State characterized by physiological arousal and changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings • Adaptive behaviors: Aid our attempts to survive and adjust to changing conditions • Physiological changes (in emotions): Include heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other involuntary responses

More on Emotions • Adrenaline: Hormone produced by adrenal glands that arouses the body • Emotional expression: Outward signs of what a person is feeling • Emotional feelings: Private emotional experience

Primary Emotions and Mood (Plutchik, 2003) • Eight primary emotions – Fear – Anger – Surprise – Anticipation – Sadness – Joy – Disgust – Trust

Primary Emotions and Mood (cont) • Mood: Low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state

Brain and Emotion • Amygdala: Part of limbic system that produces fear responses

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) • Neural system that connects brain with internal organs and glands – Activity’s automatic, not voluntary • Sympathetic branch: Part of ANS that activates body for emergency action • Parasympathetic branch: Part of ANS that quiets body and conserves energy – Parasympathetic rebound: Overreaction to intense emotion

Lie Detectors • Polygraph: Device that records changes in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response (GSR); lie detector • GSR: Measures sweating

Questions Asked While Taking a Polygraph • Irrelevant questions: Neutral, nonthreatening, non-emotional questions in a polygraph test • Relevant questions: Questions to which only someone guilty should react • Control questions: Questions that almost always provoke anxiety in a polygraph (e. g. “Have you ever taken any office supplies? ”)

Body Language (Kinesics) • Study of communication through body movement, posture, hand gestures, and facial expressions • Facial blends: Mix of two or more basic expressions

Three Basic Dimensions of Facial Expressions • Pleasantness–unpleasantness • Attention–rejection • Activation: Degree of arousal a person is experiencing

Chameleon Effect • Unconsciously imitating the postures, mannerisms, and facial expressions of others as we interact with them

Detecting Lies • Illustrators: Gestures people use to illustrate what they are saying – Tend to decrease when person is lying • Emblems: Gestures that have widely understood meanings within a particular culture – Tend to increase when person is lying

Theories of Emotion

James-Lange Theory • Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from awareness of such arousal

Cannon-Bard Theory • Activity in the thalamus (in brain) causes emotional feelings and bodily arousal at the same time

Schachter’s Cognitive Theory • Emotions occur when physical arousal is labeled or interpreted on the basis of experience and situational cues

Attribution • Mental process of assigning causes to events; attributing arousal to a certain source

Facial Feedback Hypothesis • Sensations from facial expressions help define what emotion a person feels

A Modern View of Emotion • Emotional appraisal: Evaluating personal meaning of a stimulus or situation • Emotional intelligence: Ability to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions