Chapter 10 Human Development Across the Life Span

Chapter 10: Human Development Across the Life Span

Stages of Prenatal Development from conception to birth Conception ◦ Marks beginning of prenatal period ◦ Usually takes place in the fallopian tubes ◦ Fertilization of an egg by a sperm Zygote –Cell that results from union of sperm and an ovum –first two weeks after conception, rapid cell division occurs –About the size of a period at the end of a sentence. WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

3 phases ◦ germinal stage = first 2 weeks conception, implantation, formation of placenta ◦ embryonic stage = 2 weeks – 2 months formation of vital organs and systems ◦ fetal stage = 2 months – birth bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply age of viability Birth: Progress Before Prenatal Development

Stages of Prenatal Development Embryo ◦ The developing human organism ◦ Third through the 8 th week ◦ the major systems, organs, and structures of the body develop WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Figure 10. 1 Overview of fetal development

Stages of Prenatal Development Teratogens ◦ Harmful agents in the prenatal environment, which can have a negative impact on prenatal development or even cause birth defects Impact depends on both intensity and the time during prenatal development when it is present. Most devastating consequences during the period of the embryo ◦ Heroin, cocaine, and crack during pregnancy Linked to ◦ miscarriage ◦ pre-mature birth ◦ low birth weight ◦ breathing difficulties ◦ physical defects ◦ fetal death – at times WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Stages of Prenatal Development Teratogens ◦ Fetal Alcohol Syndrome A condition, caused by maternal alcohol intake during pregnancy, in which the baby is born ◦ mentally retarded ◦ with a small head ◦ Facial and organ, Commonly wide-set eyes and a short nose ◦ and behavioral abnormalities Such as hyperactivity and short attention span Alcohol crosses the placental barrier ◦ Alcohol levels in the fetus almost match the levels in the mother’s blood Fetal Alcohol Effects ◦ Children prenatally exposed to alcohol with some characteristics in less severe form WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Stages of Prenatal Development Teratogens ◦ Smoking Decreases the amount of oxygen in placental barrier Increases the amount of carbon monoxide in the placental barrier Exposes embryo or fetus to nicotine and thousands of chemicals Increases probability of premature or low birth weight ◦ Caffeine Researchers disagree on effect of high caffeine use Recommend restrict caffeine to less than 300 milligrams (3 cups) daily ◦ Low-birth-weight A baby weighing less than 5. 5 pounds ◦ Preterm infants An infant born before the 37 th week and weighing less than 5. 5 pounds is considered a pre-mature infant Greater risk for learning, behavior, severe retardation, blindness, hearing loss, and even death WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Maternal nutrition ◦ Malnutrition linked to increased risk of birth complications, neurological problems, and psychopathology Maternal drug use ◦ Tobacco, alcohol, prescription, and recreational drugs ◦ Fetal alcohol syndrome Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development

Maternal illness ◦ Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, severe influenza ◦ Prenatal health care ◦ Prevention through guidance Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development

Basic Principles ◦ Cephalocaudal trend – head to foot ◦ Proximodistal trend – center-outward Maturation – gradual unfolding of genetic blueprint Developmental norms – median age ◦ Cultural variations The Childhood Years: Motor Development

Infancy Perceptual and Motor Development Maturation ◦ Changes that occur according to one’s genetically determined timetable development biological of WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Infancy Attachment ◦ The strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiver. ◦ Harry Harlow’s Rhesus Monkeys Contact Comfort ◦ The comfort supplied by bodily contact that develops attachment ◦ Who provides nourishment is not as important as contact comfort ◦ ‘Comforting’ figure allowed monkeys to explore new items WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Infancy Attachment ◦ Separation Anxiety The fear and distress shown by a toddler when the parent leaves ◦ occurs from 8 to 24 months ◦ reaches a peak between 12 and 18 months ◦ Stranger Anxiety common in infants at about 6 months increasing in intensity until about 12 months declining intensity in the second year greater in an unfamiliar setting, when a parent is not close at hand, and when a stranger abruptly approaches or touches the child. WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Infancy Attachment ◦ Four patterns of attachment identified by Mary Ainsworth and others ◦ Secure Attachment (about 65% of American infants) Initially distressed when separated from their mother Eagerly seek to reestablish the connection Then show interest in play Use mother as a safe base to explore Typically more responsive, obedient, cooperative, and content Preschoolers show more advanced social skills and maintain friendships WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Infancy Attachment ◦ Avoidant attachment (about 20% of American Infants) Usually not responsive to their parent when present Not troubled when parent leaves Actively avoids contact when parent returns Not much more attached to the parent than to a stranger Mothers of avoidant infants ◦ tend to show little affection and are generally unresponsive to the infant’s needs and cries WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Infancy Attachment ◦ Resistant attachment (10 -15% of American infants) Seek and prefer close contact with their mother Tend to branch out and explore Acts angry and may push the mother away or hit her when she returns Is hard to comfort and may continue crying when picked up ◦ Disorganized/disoriented attachment (5 -10% of American Infants) The most puzzling and least secure pattern Infant acts contradictory and disoriented when reunited with mother after separation May purposely look away when being held May approach mother with expressionless or depressed demeanor Dazed and vacant expressions or frozen posture when being calmed WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Infancy Attachment - Important Concepts Fathers ◦ can be as responsive and have as strong an attachment ◦ Attachments can be just as strong ◦ Many enduring positive influences on children Regular interactions with father’s have higher IQ’s and do better in social relationships Cope with frustration better Persist longer in solving problems Less impulsive and less likely to do something violent Father-son relationships associated with higher quality parenting behavior by sons with own children ◦ Engage in more exciting and arousing physical play Mother’s more likely to cushion against overstimulation and injury ◦ More supportive of a child’s confidence and identity development Father’s remain further away allowing more individual exploration and contact with novel situations ◦ Ideally children need both mother and father’s influence WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Stage theories, three components ◦ progress through stages in order ◦ progress through stages related to age ◦ major discontinuities in development Erikson (1963) ◦ Eight stages spanning the lifespan ◦ Psychosocial crises determining balance between opposing polarities in personality Becoming Unique: Personality Development

Figure 10. 5 Stage theories of development

Figure 10. 6 Erikson’s stage theory

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Individuals progress through eight psychosocial stages Each one is defined by a conflict involving the individual’s relationship with the social environment Each must be satisfactory for health development to occur The stages are named for a “series of alternative basic attitudes” Adult personality foundations are laid in the four childhood stages WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust (birth-1 year) ◦ Develop a sense of trust or mistrust ◦ Depending on the degree and regularity of care, love, and affection they receive from the mother or primary caregiver ◦ Basic trust is the cornerstone of a healthy personality Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 -3 years) ◦ Children demonstrate independence by saying “No!” ◦ Develop physical and mental abilities Initiative vs. guilt (3 -6) ◦ children begin to develop initiative Industry vs. inferiority (6 -11) ◦ Children begin to enjoy and take pride in making and doing things WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Later stages ◦ begin with puberty ◦ Not strongly tied to chronological age ◦ Represent important themes in adult life Identity vs. Role confusion (11 -22) ◦ Identity crisis should lead teens to an idea of how they fit into the adult world ◦ A healthy identity leads to next stage Intimacy vs. Isolation (22 -40) ◦ Leads to finding a life partner or acceptance of single life Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 -65) ◦ The desire to guide the next generation via parenting, teaching, or mentoring Integrity vs. Despair (65+) ◦ The acceptance of one’s life in preparation for facing death WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Important Concepts ◦ a great deal of evidence supports a trusted caregiver in infancy is critical to later development ◦ Identity development process begins in adolescence but is not complete until well into adult years College experiences help form identity via experiences Cognitive ability to engage in thinking necessary for development of identity may not occur until adult years ◦ Formal operational thinking evolves slowly during teen years ◦ Generativity has been found to increase in middle age More prominent in middle age than younger adult years It does not decline in old age Cited as an equally important concern for middle or late years of life WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Theories of Developmental Psychology ◦ The study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the lifespan. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development q. Jean Piaget q Swiss Psychologist 1896 -1990 q Studied cognitive processes of children and how they understand the world WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Schemes ◦ A cognitive structure or concept used to identify and interpret information Assimilation ◦ The process by which new objects, events, or experiences, or information is incorporated into existing schemes A child who calls Any male stranger “Daddy” the neighbor’s cat “doggie” Accommodation ◦ The process by which existing schemes are modified and new schemes are created ◦ to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, or information WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Important concepts: Changes in schemes underlie four stages of cognitive development Each stage reflects a qualitatively different way of reasoning and understanding the world Stages occur in fixed sequence ◦ Accomplishments of one stage provide the foundation for the next stage Children throughout the world seem to progress through the stages in the same order, they show individual differences in the rate they pass through them Each child’s rate is influenced by their level of maturation and experiences Transition from one stage to another is gradual, not abrupt Children often show aspects of two stages while going through transitions. WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Figure 10. 7 Piaget’s stage theory

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor (0 -2 ) ◦ infants gain an understanding of the world through their senses and their motor activities actions and body movements An infant’s behavior gradually moves from mostly reflexive to complex and intelligent Infant learns to respond to and manipulate objects and use them in goal-directed activity ◦ Object Permanence The realization that objects continue to exist, even when they can no longer be perceived. WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Preoperational (2 -7 ) ◦ Symbolic Function The understanding that one thing stand for another ◦ An object, a word, a drawing ◦ The use of words to present object can saying the word milk instead of taking you to the fridge and showing you want they want to drink Pretend Play ◦ Imagining a block is a car ◦ Imagining a doll is a real baby ◦ Egocentricism The belief that everyone sees what they see, thinks as they think, and feels as they feel. ◦ Results in illogical thinking ◦ A cookie is only good if it is unbroken WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Figure 10. 8 Piaget’s conservation task

Piaget’s Conservation Tasks WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Concrete Stage (ages 7 -11 or 12 years) ◦ Conservation The concept that a given quantity of matter remains the same despite being rearranged or changed in appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken away ◦ Reversibility The realization that any change in the shape, position, or order of matter can be reversed mentally WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Formal Operations (ages 11 or 12 years and beyond) ◦ Preadolescents and adolescents can apply logical thought to abstract, verbal, and hypothetical situations and to problems in the past, present, or future ◦ Hypothetic-deductive Thinking The ability to base logical reasoning on a hypothetical premise Can comprehend abstract subjects like philosophy and politics and become interested in the world of ideas Begin to formulate their own theories and think of what might be ◦ Conceive of “perfect” solutions to the world’s and their own problems WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Formal Operations ◦ Naïve Idealism Continued A type of thought in which adolescents construct ideal solutions for problems Teens with divorced parents may idealize the non-custodial parent ◦ Imaginary Audience A belief of adolescents that they are or will be the focus of attention in social situations and that others will be as critical or approving as they are of themselves Teens spend many hours in front of the mirror trying to please this audience ◦ Personal Fable An exaggerated sense of personal uniqueness and indestructibility ◦ may be the basis for adolescent risk taking ◦ Many believe they are somehow indestructible and protected from misfortunes that befall others WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Criticisms ◦ Piaget underestimated children’s abilities ◦ Problems with stage theories ◦ Universality Vygotskey’s sociocultural theory Are some cognitive abilities innate? Evaluating Piaget’s Theory

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Approach Scaffolding ◦ A type of instruction in which an adult adjusts the amount of guidance provided to match a child’s present level of ability ◦ Direct instructions are given First for unfamiliar tasks As competency increases the teacher or parent gradually withdraws from direct and active teaching The child continues toward independent mastery of the task ◦ Naturally occur with in the context of parent-child interaction Helping a child learn how to put the right shapes in a hole WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Approach Hypothesized that much of cognitive development results from the child’s internalization of information that is acquired socially, primarily through the medium of language. Children come equipped ◦ Perception ◦ Ability to pay attention ◦ Certain memory capacities with basic skills Zone of Proximal Development ◦ A range of cognitive tasks that a child cannot yet do but can learn to do through the guidance of an older child or adult WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Vygotsky’s Scaffolding Parents teaching their child to ride a bike may use scaffolding. First by providing direct and continuous instruction and then gradually withdraws from active teaching and proficiency increases. WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Vygotsky and Piaget’s studies lead to Kohlberg’s work: Vygotsky’s view on moral development ◦ Culture, by means of language and religious instruction, molds the individual to conform to its standards of acceptable behavior ◦ Piaget’s view on moral development ◦ Children’s level of cognitive development interact with society Kohlberg ◦ Studied moral development by presenting a series of moral dilemmas ◦ More interested in the reasons for participants responses than whether behavior was judged right or wrong. ◦ Classified moral behavior into three levels Each level having two stages People progress one stage at a time WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

A Moral Dilemma In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, and the druggist was charging ten times what it cost him. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together $1000, which was half of what the drug cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, “No, I discovered the drug, and I am going to make money from it”. So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife (Colby, et al. , 1983, pp. 77). What moral judgment would you make about the dilemma? Should Heinze have stolen the drug? Why or why not? WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Kohlberg (1976) ◦ Reasoning as opposed to behavior Moral dilemmas ◦ Measured nature and progression of moral reasoning ◦ 3 levels, each with 2 sublevels Preconventional Conventional Postconventional The Development of Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Preconventional ◦ Moral reasoning is based on the physical consequences of an act: Reasoning and actions governed by standards of others and not internalized standards ◦ Stage 1 “right” is whatever avoids punishment ◦ Stage 2 Right is what ever is rewarded, benefits the individual, or results in a favor being returned WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Conventional: individual has internalized standards of others. ◦ right and wrong are based on the internalized standards of others Right is whatever helps or is approved of by others Whatever is consistent with the laws of society ◦ Stage 3 Called the “good boy-nice girl” orientation Good behavior is that which ◦ Pleases others ◦ Helps others ◦ is approved of by others WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Postconventional ◦ Individuals weigh moral alternatives Realize the law may conflict with basic human rights ◦ “Right” is whatever furthers basic human rights ◦ Requires ability to think at Piaget’s stage of formal operations ◦ Stage 5 Believes the laws are formulated to protect both society and the individual Laws should be changed if they fail to do so. ◦ Stage 6 ethical decisions based on universal principles ◦ Respect for human life, justice, equality, and dignity Believe following conscience may require violation of laws WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Figure 10. 10 Kohlberg’s stage theory

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Important Concepts ◦ Kohlberg realized discussion of moral dilemmas does not reliably improve moral behavior Direct teaching of moral values is necessary General cognitive development strongly influences how children respond to moral teaching Young children’s ability to infer moral messages is strongly linked with reading comprehension skills Parent’s who read moral stories to children (Little Red Hen) should provide explicit information of the moral message and how it relates to the characters in the story WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Important Concepts ◦ Kohlberg’s stages of development occur in all cultures ◦ Gilligan asserts Kohlberg’s theory is sex biased Research did not include women or mercy, compassion, love, or concern for others Content of moral reasoning differs between sexes but does not differ in the complexity of moral reasoning ◦ Other critics assert moral reasoning and moral behavior not the same People can be capable of making mature moral judgments yet fail to live morally WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Personality development Social development Career development Physical changes Cognitive changes The Expanse of Adulthood

Early and Middle Childhood Socialization 1. The process of learning socially acceptable behaviors, attitudes, and values Children of “warm, affectionate parents were more likely to be socially accomplished adults…mentally healthy, coping adequately, and psychosocially mature at work, relationships, and generativity” Three parenting styles: Authoritarian ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Parents who make arbitrary rules Expect unquestioned obedience from the children Punish transgressions (Often physically) Value obedience to authority Parents tend to be uncommunicative, unresponsive, and distant Preschool children tend to be withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy Has been associated with low intellectual performance and lack of social skills, especially in boys WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Early and Middle Childhood Socialization – Parenting Styles 2. Authoritative ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Parents who set high but realistic standards Reason with the child Enforce limits Encourage open communication and independence Willing to discuss rules and supply rationales for them Are generally warm, nurturant, supportive, and responsive Show respect for their children and their opinions Children are more mature, happy, self-reliant, selfcontrolled, assertive, socially competent, and responsible Authoritative parents are associated with middle children and teens who have higher academic performance Independence Higher self-esteem Internalized moral standards WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Early and Middle Childhood Socialization – Parenting Styles 3. Permissive ◦ Make few rules or demands ◦ Does not enforce rules when they are made ◦ Allows children to make their own decisions and control own behavior ◦ Children are the most ◦ ◦ Immature Impulsive Dependent Least self-controlled and self-reliant Parenting styles are Indifferent Unconcerned Uninvolved Associated with Drinking problems, promiscuous sex, delinquent behavior, poor school performance WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Early and Middle Childhood Gender Roles Cultural expectations about the behavior appropriate for each gender Biological View ◦ Genes and prenatal sex hormones have strong effect Androgens have strong influence on play behavior Girls exposed to prenatal androgens prefer boy toys (trucks, cars, etc. ) Prenatal androgens affect brain development and functioning Social Learning View ◦ ◦ Children are reinforced for gender appropriate behaviors Gender inappropriate behaviors receive reprimanded Boy puts on lipstick, girl pretends to shave her face WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Early and Middle Childhood Gender Roles Cognitive Developmental View ◦ ◦ Understanding of gender is a prerequisite for gender role developing Gender Identity Sense of being a male or female Gender Stability Awareness that boys are boys and girls are girls for a lifetime Gender Constancy Gender does not change regardless of the activities people engage in or clothes they wear Motivated to seek out same-sex models and learn to act in way appropriate for their gender WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Early and Middle Childhood Gender Roles ◦ Cross-Cultural Studies Confirm that Gender identity, stability, and constancy occur in the same order in various cultures Gender-Schema Theory ◦ ◦ ◦ Children are motivated to pay attention to and behave consistent with gender-based standards and stereotypes of the culture Use the schema to organize and process information Children’s self-esteem and self-concept depend on a match between their behaviors, abilities, and the cultural acceptance for their gender WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Figure 10. 12 Physical development at puberty

Pubescence Puberty ◦ Secondary sex characteristics ◦ Primary sex characteristics Menarche Sperm production ◦ Maturation: early vs. late Sex differences in effects of early maturation Adolescence: Physiological Changes

Adolescence The stage that begins at puberty and encompasses the period from the end of childhood to the beginning of adulthood. Average Age of Puberty ◦ 10 years old for girls Range 7 to 14 years of age ◦ 12 years old for boys Range 9 to 16 years of age Begins with surge of hormones followed by growth spurt ◦ ◦ Girls growth spurt between ages 10 -13 years of age Boys growth spurt between ages 12 -15 years of age Girls reach full height between ages 16 -17 Boys reach full height between ages 18 -20 WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Puberty—stage where an individual reaches sexual maturity and is physically capable of sexual reproduction Primary sex characteristics—sex organs directly involved in reproduction Secondary sex characteristics—develop during puberty, not directly involved in reproduction, but distinguish male from female Adolescent growth spurt—period of accelerated growth during puberty Menarche—female’s first menstrual period Physical and Sexual Development

Adolescence The stage that begins at puberty and encompasses the period from the end of childhood to the beginning of adulthood. Secondary Sex Characteristics ◦ Physical characteristics not involved in reproduction that distinguish males from females ◦ Females Males breasts develop voice deepens hips round facial and chest hair pubic and under arm hair Menarche ejaculation (onset of menstruation) onset of sperm production Average of 12 average 13 Range of age 10 -15 WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Adolescence Timing of Puberty - Psychological Consequences Early Maturing Boys – taller and stronger than peers Early Maturing Girls – tower over peers ◦ ◦ ◦ Advantage in sports Have positive body image Feel confident, secure, independent, and happy More successful academically More hostile and aggressive In poor families tend to associate with deviant peers ◦ ◦ ◦ Feel self-conscious about their developing body and size Likely to develop eating disorders Likely to have early sexual experiences and unwanted pregnancies Exposed to alcohol and drug use Late Maturing Girls experience stress when fail to develop with peers More likely to be taller and slimmer than early maturing girls WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Increasing myelinization Changes in prefrontal cortex Adolescence: Neural Changes

Incidence of Sexual Activity in U. S. High School Students WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Adolescence Puberty and Sexual Behavior Teen pregnancy higher in U. S. than any other developed country ◦ 50 births per year for every 1, 000 teenage girls in the U. S. Most teen pregnancies are ◦ to unwed mothers ◦ Occur after the age of 16 Less sexually active/experienced teens ◦ Attend religious services frequently ◦ Live with both biological parents ◦ Parents are neither too permissive or strict in discipline and rules ◦ Have academic achievement above average ◦ Involved in sports WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Changing Structure of American Families and Households

Early and Middle Adulthood Physical Changes ◦ 20’s and 30’s Period of top physical condition ◦ Strength, reaction time, reproductive capacity, and manual dexterity are at their peak ◦ After the 30’s Slight decline in physical capabilities ◦ Mostly due to diet, exercise, and health habits ◦ Mid to late 40’s Presbyopia ◦ Lenses of the eyes no longer react for near vision Reading glasses are needed Menopause ◦ Cessation of menstruation and reproductive capability ◦ Occurs between ages 45 -55 ◦ Testosterone diminishes in men from age 20 -60 WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Early and Middle Adulthood Intellectual Young adults Capacity outperform middle and older adults on speed or rote memory tests Middle and older adults outperform young adults in general information, vocabulary, reasoning ability, and social judgment ◦ Likely due to greater experiences and education Adults continue to gain knowledge and skills over the years Longitudinal study (Shaie & colleagues, 94, 95, 2004) demonstrated: ◦ ◦ ◦ Verbal meaning Spatial orientation Inductive reasoning Number and word fluency Modest gains from young adulthood to mid 40’s Decline did not occur until after age 60 Modest declines until age 80 s Half showed on decline at age 81 Perceptual speed only element to decline from mid 20 s to 80 s. WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Median Age at First Marriage

Early and Middle Adulthood Social Development A majority of adults marry and have children ◦ In 1960 median age of first marriage; 20 -females, 23 -males ◦ Today median age of first marriage; 25 -females, 27 -males Majority delays parenthood until the 30 s ◦ Adjustment into parenting one of the most challenging and rewarding parts of life ◦ New parents argue about child-rearing ideas and household chores ◦ Relationship satisfaction often declines after birth of first baby ◦ Higher satisfaction when couples agree to share child and household duties Child ◦ ◦ ◦ rearing central in lives of working women 18% of women in 1960 s were employed 68% of women with children under age 6 work today 80% of women with school aged children work today Women’s work patterns much less continuous than men Women less likely to pursue upper-level management positions WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Early and Middle Adulthood Social Development Child rearing central in lives of working women ◦ Gender discrimination common in workplace today ◦ Steady increase of women in upper-level positions, educational institutions, and government agencies Important ◦ ◦ Concepts Career satisfaction important to most adults Divorce leads to lower standard of living, especially for women Majority of divorcees remarry eventually Kin-keeper Many middle aged women assume this family role Maintains lines of communication, solves conflict among family members, and organizes social events ◦ Few middle-age adults express desire to be young again Prefer social status and knowledge accumulated over the years over physical advantages of early adulthood WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Parenthood can cause stress and conflict in a marriage, but it is also immensely satisfying for most couples WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Later Adulthood Stereotypes about Later Adulthood Estimate the percentages of people older than age 65 in the United States who exhibit these indicators of well-being: 1. Live alone or with a spouse 2. Have incomes above the poverty level 3. Interact with family at least once every two weeks 4. Need no help with daily activities 5. Need no assistive devices (e. g. cane, wheelchair) 6. Go out to eat at least once every two weeks 7. Attend religious services regularly 8. Are sexually active Sources: FIFARS (2000, 2004); Gingell et al. (2003) WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Later Adulthood Physical Changes ◦ Assumption that number of neurons in brain declines in adulthood is false ◦ Aging cortex loss of volume due to breakdown of myelin cover of axon Begins in early 30 s Causes slowing of behavior Brain takes longer to process information Reaction time is slower ◦ Physical Losses Become farsighted Increasingly impaired night vision Hearing loss in higher frequencies Joints become stiffer Bones lose calcium and become brittle ◦ Increases risk of fractures ◦ Physical exercise improves fitness levels of older adults ◦ Chronic Conditions Hypertension (52% of women, 47% of men) Arthritis (39% of women 31% of men) ◦ Can be controlled with medications WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Later Adulthood Cognitive Changes ◦ Older adults who keep mentally and physically active tend to retain their mental skills as long as their health is good Do well on tests of vocabulary, comprehension, and general information, and ability to solve problems is higher than younger adults Take longer to learn a task but apply it as accurately as younger adults ◦ Two Types of Intelligence Crystallized Intelligence ◦ Aspects of intelligence including verbal ability and accumulated knowledge ◦ Tends to increase over the lifespan Fluid Intelligence ◦ Aspects of intelligence involving abstract reasoning and mental flexibility ◦ Peak in early 20 s and decline slowly as people age WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Older adults take more time to learn new skills, but once learned, they apply new skills as accurately as those who are younger. WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Later Adulthood Cognitive Changes Memory ◦ Older people do as well as younger people on recognition tasks recall information in their areas of expertise ◦ Younger adults do better in tasks requiring processing speed in short term memory recall of items with no particular meaning for them Good Cognitive Functioning helped by ◦ Higher education level ◦ Complex work environment ◦ A long marriage to an intelligent spouse ◦ A higher income ◦ Leading intellectually stimulating and mentally active lives ◦ “Use it or lose it” WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Percentage of people age 65 and older who reported having good to excellent health, by age group and race and Hispanic origin WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Later Adulthood Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Types of Dementia ◦ A state of mental deterioration characterized by impaired memory and intellect altered personality and behavior ◦ Afflicts 5 -8% of adults over age 65 15 -20% of adults over age 75 25 -50% of those over 85 ◦ Senility Caused by physical deterioration of the brain ◦ Cerebral arteriosclerosis (hardening of brain arteries) ◦ Chronic alcoholism ◦ Irreversible damage from small strokes WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Later Adulthood Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Types of Dementia Alzheimer’s Disease ◦ An incurable form of dementia characterized by Progressive deterioration of intellect and personality Widespread degeneration of brain cells ◦ Victims at first show Gradual impairment in memory and reasoning Loss of efficiency in carrying out everyday tasks Difficulty finding way around in familiar locations ◦ As disorder progresses patients become Confused and irritable Wander away from home Become increasingly unable to take care of themselves Speech becomes unintelligible Unable to control bladder and bowel functioning May not respond to spoken words No longer recognize even spouse or children WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Later Adulthood Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Types of Dementia Alzheimer’s Disease ◦ Risk Factors Age Family history of Alzheimer’s Disease ◦ Delaying or Lessening Onset A high IQ coupled with life long intellectual activity anti-inflammatory drugs and antioxidant vitamin E Items presently in research studies ◦ Folic acid ◦ Antioxidants such as vitamin C ◦ nicotine WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Later Adulthood Social Adjustment Retirement ◦ About 88% of older adults in U. S. are retired ◦ Most are happy to leave work and adjust to retirement ◦ 30% of retirees reported retirement stressful More likely to be in poor health and have financial problems ◦ Those who are reluctant to retire are: Better educated Hold high-status jobs with a good income Find fulfillment in their work Loss of a Spouse ◦ The most stressful event in a lifetime ◦ Physical effects include: Sleep disruptions and tiredness Anxiety Greater risk for health problems Higher mortality rate within the first 6 months WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Later Adulthood Social Adjustment Loss of a Spouse ◦ The most stressful event in a lifetime ◦ 44% of women and 14% of men alter living arrangements ◦ Only 5% of women and 9% of men live with relatives ◦ When living with relatives life satisfaction is lower ◦ Ability to live alone is important factor in life satisfaction in U. S. and Europe Successful Aging Maintaining one’s physical health, mental abilities, social competence, and overall satisfaction with life as one gets older ◦ Three components 1. Good physical health Majority of older adults rate health as good and grade health on a curve 80% suffer from some kind of chronic ailment 2. Retention of cognitive abilities 3. Engagement in social productive activities WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon

Later Adulthood Successful Aging Behaviors to ward off age-related decline ◦ Eat a healthy diet ◦ Remain mentally and socially active ◦ Proactive attitudes and behaviors after medical injuries (stroke) Can regain most functioning when positive attitude combined with effort WWB Copyright 2006 Allyn & Bacon