Chapter 10 Crimes against Persons Frank Schmalleger Power

Chapter 10 Crimes against Persons Frank Schmalleger Power. Point presentation created by Ellen G. Cohn, Ph. D.

Violent Crime Typologies n Crime typology: A classification of crimes along a particular dimension or set of defined characteristics • Legal categories • Situational factors • Offender motivation • Offender characteristics • Victim behavior Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 2 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Homicide n n n Statutes distinguish between types of homicide based on intent, circumstances, age, etc. Fairly rare; small fraction of reported violent crimes Most involve acquaintances or family Most preceded by an argument Offending patterned by sociodemographics Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 3 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

The Subculture of Violence Thesis Wolfgang and Ferracuti’s subculture of violence thesis is the primary perspective used to understand homicide n n Victims and offenders have similar sociodemographic characteristics Victims and offenders intimately known to each other are disproportionately represented The racial composition of an area alone does not have a significant effect on homicide rates Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 4 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Structural Explanations for Homicide Regional variations in patterns of violent crimes exist n n Some suggest the high homicide rate in the South is due to violence-related norms that are outdated elsewhere Others claim that the influence of structural variables such as poverty may provide alternative explanations There is evidence that the South differs from other regions in the frequency of homicide Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 5 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

The Victim-Offender Relationship Wolfgang’s research into homicides n n Found 25% of homicides were between family members –women more likely to be both offenders and victims Males more likely to be killed by friends or strangers than by family members If a male was killed by a female, it was more likely to be his spouse Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 6 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

The Victim-Offender Relationship Primary homicides n n n Involve family members, friends, and acquaintances Expressive crimes: result from acts of interpersonal hostility Nonprimary homicides n n Victims and offenders have no prior relationship Usually occur during another crime Instrumental crimes: involve premeditation, less likely to be victim precipitated Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 7 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

The Victim-Offender Relationship Exposure-reduction theory of intimate homicide n n n Dugan, Nagin, and Rosenfeld Three factors that reduce intimate partner homicide n n n Declining domesticity Improved economic status of women Increase in domestic violence resources Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 8 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Instrumental and Expressive Homicide Not all homicide offender intend to kill their victims n n n Instrumental homicide may begin as a robbery motivated by instrumental ends Expressive homicide may be preceded by an argument Sibling offense n n n The incident that begins a homicide Considering sibling offenses may help explain why some incidents end in murder while others do not Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 9 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Victim Precipitation Victim precipitation n n Contributes by the victim to the criminal event Focus on victim characteristics that may have precipitated the victimization Intent is not victim blaming, although this has occurred Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 10 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Victim Precipitation n Intimate-partner homicide has gender patterns of victim precipitation n Many homicides committed by women are victim precipitated Only a small number of homicides committed by men are victim precipitated There is a positive significant association between alcohol use and victim precipitated homicides Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 11 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Weapon Use n Instrumentality The type of weapon used in an encounter can affect whether the encounter becomes lethal n Availability Issues surrounding how access to guns may increase their presence in all types of interactions, including criminal ones Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 12 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Alcohol and Drug Use Goldstein’s typology of drugs and crime n n Psychopharmacological model Use of certain drugs produces violent behavior by lowering inhibitions or elevating aggressive tendencies n Economic compulsion Crimes are committed to support a drug habit n Systemic violence The connection between drugs and trafficking Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 13 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Alcohol and Drug Use n Selective disinhibition The presence of alcohol in some situations may suspend factors that could restrain violence and may also put into play factors that could increase the occurrence or lethal nature of violence n n The disinhibiting effect of alcohol is social, not biochemical Alcohol significantly predicts most types of primary homicide Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 14 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Gangs Gang homicides are more likely to: n n n Involve minority males Involve gun use Occur in public places Involve victims and offenders with no prior relationship Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 15 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Gangs Gang-motivated violence n n n Violent crime as the direct result of gang activity Gang-affiliated violence Individual gang members are involved in crime but not as a purposeful result of gang activity Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 16 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Serial Murder n Serial murder: Criminal homicide involving the killing of several victims in three or more events n Typical offender: white male, late 20 s or 30 s, targets strangers at or near home or work Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 17 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Typologies of Serial Killers Holmes and De. Burger’s taxonomy n n Visionary serial killers: hear voices and have visions n Comfort serial killers: kill for financial or material gain n n Hedonistic serial killers: murder for the pleasure of the killing Power seekers: operate from a position of power over others Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 18 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Typologies of Serial Killers Fox and Levin’s typology n n Thrill-motivated killers: sexual sadism, dominance n Mission-oriented killers: reformist or visionary orientation n Expedience-directed killers: profit or protection Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 19 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Female Serial Killers Disciple killer n Murders as the result of the influence of a charismatic personality Kelleher and Kelleher’s typology of female serialists n n n Black widow Angel of death Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 20 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Female Serial Killers n Patterns of female serial killers n n n Rarely hedonistic Generally target victims they know Generally are geographically stable Generally have longer careers Tend to be more systematic Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 21 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Apprehending Serial Killers n n FBI’s Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (VICAP) Profiling n n n Organized nonsocial killers Disorganized asocial killers Geomapping Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 22 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Mass Murder Mass murder: n Killing more than three people at the same time Levin and Fox’s typology n n n Revenge Love Profit Terror Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 23 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Mass Murder Factors or elements that may lead to mass murder: n n Predisposers Precipitants Facilitators Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 24 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Rape Estimates of the extent of rape vary depending on the data source used n n UCR accuracy is hampered by victim reporting NCVS accuracy questions due to problems with measurement and disclosure The best current measure comes from the National Violence Against Women Survey Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 25 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Rape Myths Rape myths n n n False assumptions about rape that continue to characterize much of the discourse surrounding sexual violence Culturally based, inhibit victim reporting of rape Examples n n Women bring false charges to get even with men Women ask for it by wearing provocative clothing or going to bars alone Women say “no” when they mean “yes” Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 26 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Common Law Definition of Rape “Carnal knowledge of a woman not one’s wife by force or against her will” n n n Did not recognize male victims Did not recognize rape within marriage Did not allow for other acts of sexual penetration Did not allow for various means by which force could occur Rules of evidence required n n Victim demonstrate physical resistance Victim have corroboration that rape occurred Victim’s sexual history could be admitted into evidence Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 27 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Rape Law Reform Common themes in rape law reforms: n n n Redefining rape and replacing the single crime of rape with a series of graded offenses Changing the consent standard by eliminating the requirement that the victim resist the attacker physically Eliminating the need that the victim’s testimony be corroborated Placing restrictions on the introduction of evidence of the victim’s prior sexual conduct Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 28 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Rape Law Reform Some states have even changed the terminology from “rape” to “sexual assault” Rape shield laws n n First introduced in the 1970 s Intended to protect rape victims by ensuring that irrelevant facts about the victim’s sexual past were not introduced into evidence Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 29 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

The Effects of Rape Law Reform n n New legislation has limited impact on courtroom work group behavior unless they embrace the changes or unless instrumental changes are forced upon them Legal reforms take time to produce large scale change and must be evaluated continually for more evidence of how change is occurring Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 30 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Acquaintance Rape Acquaintance rapes are the most common scenario for rapes n n Occur when the victim and offender have some prior relationship Usually occurs within the context of a dating relationship Frequently underreported Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 31 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Acquaintance Rape Acquaintance rape on college campuses n n 1992 Campus Sexual Assault Victims’ Bill of Rights Act Research on rape in college settings frequently focuses on identifying factors in college life that may be conducive to rape Colleges are developing programs that focus on rape as an issue for men as well as women Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 32 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Marital Rape The marital exemption began to be eliminated from the statutes in the 1970 s Russell’s typology of men who rape their wives n n n Husbands who prefer raping their wives to having consensual sex with them Husbands who enjoy both rape and consensual sex with their wives or who are indifferent to which it is Husbands who prefer consensual sex with their wives but are willing to rape them if their sexual advances are refused Husbands who might like to rape their wives but do not act out these desires Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 33 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Prison Rape Same-sex rape can be common in prisons n n Inmate victimization does not produce the same level of social outrage as when the victim is “law abiding” Patterns of rape differ in male and female prisons n n n Rape within female prisons involves primarily male staff attacking female inmates Rape within male prisons involves only inmates Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 34 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Feminist Perspective Common elements: n n n See gender as a social construct rather than a biological given Do not separate the patriarchal structures within society that contribute to the privileged status of males from rape itself See rape as an act of power or domination A rape culture exists that sees male aggression as normal and blames women for their own rape Feminist perspectives have been criticized for their often one-dimensional view of masculinity Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 35 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Psychopathological Perspective This perspective is based on two assumptions: n n n Rape is the result of idiosyncratic mental disease Rape often includes uncontrollable sexual impulses Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 36 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Psychopathological Perspective Groth’s typology of rapists n n Power rape (most common) Rape to exert control over women n Anger rape Attack victims in anger, impulsively, with no prior planning n Sadistic rape (fairly rare) Combination of power and anger motives and frequently involve torture Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 37 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

An Integrated Theory of Rape Baron and Straus’ integrated theory of rape: n n n Argues that higher levels of gender inequality, social disorganization, and support for legitimate violence combine to produce higher rape rates at the state level Support for legitimate violence refers to norms justifying the expression of violence in certain contexts Gender inequality is related to rape rates because as women’s status in society increases, rape as a mechanism of social control over women is challenged Social disorganization refers to community inability to sustain social institutions that serve as a buffer to social ills such as crime Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 38 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Evolutionary/Biological Perspectives n n n Focuses on motives and ends conducive to rape Different traits relating to mating that developed in males and females may have evolved through sexual selection Perspective argues that the feminist position of rape ignores the existence of a biologically based sexual motivation Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 39 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Typologies of Rapists Hazelwood and Burgess’ typology of rapists based on motivation n n Power-assertive rapists Power-reassurance rapists Anger-retaliatory rapists Anger-excitation rapists Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 40 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Typologies of Rapists Stevens’ typology of offender motivation n n n Lust rape Righteous rape Peer rape Control and anger rapes Supremacy rape Fantasy rape Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 41 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Typologies of Rapists Scully’s typology of rationalizations n n Admitters n Deniers Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 42 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) CSA includes a variety of criminal and civil offenses in which an adult: n n n Engages in sexual activity with a minor Exploits a minor for purposes of sexual gratification, or Exploits a minor sexually for purposes of profit CSA is greatly despised but little understood Commonly believed that CSA is underreported Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 43 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Typology of CSA Groth’s two-part typology n n Regressed offenders Fixated offenders Sexual victimization as a child may contribute to an individual perpetrating CSA if accompanied by other intervening factors Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 44 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Robbery combines elements of violence and property crime n n Personal robbery Robberies in residences and “muggings” (robberies on the highway or street) n Institutional robbery Occurs in commercial settings (gas stations, banks, convenience stores, etc. ) Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 45 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Robbery Lethal potential n n n Robbery carries threat of injury to the victim Most likely felony to result in homicide Criminal careers of robbers n n n Most robbers are generalists with lengthy but varied career Few inmates specialize exclusively in robbery Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 46 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Robbery and Public Transportation n Robbery on mass transit is fairly rare Crime prevention strategies may be very effective in public transport settings Taxi drivers at greatest risk Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 47 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

The Motivation of Robbers Most robberies involve little planning The decision to offend occurs as part of ongoing social action mediated by prevailing situations and subcultural conditions Main motivation is financial gain/need Other motives n n n n Desire to fight Desire to right a perceived injustice Desire to enhance street credibility “Just for kicks” Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 48 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Drug Robberies Majority of offenders specializing in street robberies targeted individuals also involved in lawbreaking Many targeted minor drug dealers n n Acquire both money and drugs Drug dealers were unlikely to report the victimization to the police Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 49 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Drug Robberies n Strategies used to minimize risk involved in targeting drug dealers n n n Intimidation Anonymity maintenance Hypervigilance Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 50 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

The Gendered Nature of Robbery Other than rape, robbery is the most genderdifferentiated serious crime in the US Both men and women are motivated by money, but use different methods Men: n n n Use physical violence and/or a gun Rob other males more frequently Target victims involved in street life Women n n Lack one clear style but rarely use guns unless robbing a man Most common approach is to rob females in a physically confrontational manner Others include using their sexuality to attract male victims and acting as accomplices to males in robberies of other men Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 51 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Assault n Most common violent crime and starting point for more serious interpersonal violence n n n Aggravated assault Simple assault (most common) Most aggravated assaults are spontaneous Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 52 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Stranger Assault Low probability of serious injury by stranger Two primary types of stranger violence: n n n Crimes that involve exploiting a setting Spontaneous encounters between strangers in routine settings Stranger assaults are more likely to involve victims and offenders of similar ages Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 53 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Assault within Families The majority of assaults involve victims and offenders known to each other, often in familial or intimate relationships Invading the castle n n Family violence is difficult to research because the family as a social institution is private Discussion of violence among family members violates this privacy Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 54 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Assault within Families n n n NIBRS data suggest that more than half of all violent crimes involved victims and offenders who were related Assault is the most frequently occurring violent crime both among the general population and within the family Women are more likely to be the victims of assaults within the family than in the general population Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 55 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Intimate-Partner Assault n n Assaultive behavior between individuals involved in an intimate relationship Separation assault A particularly violent response by the male partner that occurs after a woman leaves a violent relationship n Cycle of violence Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 56 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Workplace Violence n n A significant problem in America today – more common than generally believed Includes murder, rape, robbery, and assault committed against persons who are at work or on duty Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 57 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Typology of Workplace Violence n Type 1 Violent acts by criminals with no other connection with the workplace n Type 2 Violence directed at employees by those for whom an organization provides services n Type 3 Violence against coworkers, supervisors, or managers by a present or former employee n Type 4 Violence committed in the workplace by someone who does not work there but who has a personal relationship with an employee Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 58 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Stalking n Stalking: A course of conduct directed at a specific person that involves repeated visual or physical proximity, nonconsensual communication, or verbal, written or implied threats, or a combination thereof, that would cause a reasonable person fear Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 59 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Types of Stalkers n n n Rejected stalkers Intimacy seeking stalkers Incompetent suitors Resentful vendetta-motivated stalkers Predatory stalkers Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 60 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Victim-Offender Relationships in Stalking 80% of stalking victims are women; the majority of stalkers are men Majority of victims are between 18 and 39 years of age Majority of victims know the stalker n n n Female victims are more likely to be stalked by an intimate partner Male victims are more likely to be stalked by a male stranger or acquaintance Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 61 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Consequences of Stalking Negative impacts of stalking n n n Increased concern about personal safety Need for counseling Time lost from work Self-protective measures Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 62 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.

Cyberstalking n Cyberstalking: An array of high-tech activities in which an offender may engage to harass or “follow individuals, including email and the Internet Criminology Today, 5 th ed Frank Schmalleger 63 © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.