Chapter 10 Case Study UNIX History of unix

Chapter 10 : Case Study - UNIX • History of unix • Overview of unix • Processes in unix • Memory management in unix • Input/output in unix • The unix file system • Security in unix Note: This case study covers only UNIX. Please read chapter 10 of the text book for LINUX. Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 1

History of UNIX • Originated from the MULTICS (Multiplexed Information and Computing Service) operating system by M. I. T, Bell Labs and GE • There are two main versions: – AT&T System V Release 4 (SVR 4) • Originally developed by AT&T, now SCO – BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution) Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 2

Overview of UNIX • • • Supports various architectures Structure varies Supports preemptive multitasking Multiuser environment - generally secure Supports multithreaded applications Protection/Security is high on modern versions Supports symmetric multiprocessing Highly scalable/portable to various systems Many types/flavours of UNIX exist Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 3

UNIX Layers User Interface The layers of a UNIX system. Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 4

UNIX Utility Programs A few of the more common UNIX utility programs required by POSIX Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 5

UNIX Kernel (1) Approximate structure of generic UNIX kernel Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 6

UNIX Kernel (2) • Bottom layer – Device drivers for character and block devices – Process dispatcher which stops the current process, saves its state and starts the appropriate driver when an interrupt occurs Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 7

Process Creation in UNIX - fork Process creation in UNIX. Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 8

POSIX Shell A highly simplified shell Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 9

The ls Command Steps in executing the command ls type to the shell Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 10

Some UNIX Process Concepts • Daemons (background processes) – Cron daemon which wakes up once a minute to check scheduled events (eg. , disk backup) • Pipes - syncronized channels between processes to pass byte streams • Signals – software interrupts used for interprocess communication. Choices: catch, ignore, or kill process Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 11

Signals Required By POSIX The signals required by POSIX. Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 12

System Calls for Process Management s is an error code pid is a process ID residual is the remaining time from the previous alarm Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 13

Thread Calls in POSIX The principal POSIX thread calls. Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 14

Thread Calls in POSIX • Threads were not in the first versions of UNIX • There are many thread packages in use which are standardized in POSIX • Thread calls are the same for user-space or kernelspace • In kernel-space implementation calls are system calls • In user-space implementation calls are to a runtime library Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 15

Thread Communication - mutexes • Threads use locks called mutexes for short-time locking a resource (say a shared buffer) • A mutex must be first created (and finally destroyed • Mutual exclusion is implemented by locking a mutex before accessing a resource and unlock it when they are done (like binary semaphores which is “ 0” or “ 1”, a mutex is either locked or unlocked) Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 16

Thread Communication – condition variables • For long-term synchronization (such as waiting for a tape to become free) condition variables are used • Condition variables have to be created first and later destroyed like mutexes • A condition variable is used by having one thread wait on it, and another thread signal it. If no thread is waiting when a signal is sent, the signal is lost Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 17

UNIX Scheduler (1) • The UNIX scheduler is based on a multilevel queue structure (highest priority queue first, round-robin in each queue) • In this scheme, a process which was blocked and waiting for an event joins the appropriate queue when blocking is over (a process whose disk I/O is finished joins, say, queue – 4) Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 18

UNIX Scheduler (2) • Once a second the priority of all processes are recalculated to avoid starvation using priority = CPU_usage + nice + base • CPU_usage, represents the average number of clock ticks per second that the process had during the past few seconds • Nice is a value between – 20 to 20 (default 0). Nice system call can be used to set this value 0 -20 • Base is a system parameter in UNIX source code • The scheduler forces CPU bound (on positive queues) get any service that is left over when all I/O bound and interactive processes are blocked Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 19

Booting UNIX (1) • The first sector of the boot disk (master boot record) is read in and executed • This sector loads the boot program • Boot reads root directory, loads kernel and starts its execution • Kernel reads the rest of the operating system (main C-code section) • C code does some initialization, allocates system data structures, loads device drivers and handcrafts the first process, process 0 Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 20

Booting UNIX (2) cp The sequences of processes used to boot some systems Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 21

Handling Memory Process A Process B • Each process has three segments (shown as one segment in the figure, but if hardware supports they can be separate): – Text : executable code (which is shared in the figure) – Data : variables, strings, arrays etc. • initialized data – variables which must be initialized to some value when program starts • Uninitialized data (BSS) – not initialized but has value 0 as default – Stack • Text is fixed in length, data and stack can grow and shrink Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 22

Paging in UNIX (1) • Prior to 3 BSD, UNIX systems used swapping (if memory is full, swap processes to disk) • To run a process, all that is needed is the user structure and page table. The pages of the text, data and stack segments are brought in on demand Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 23

Paging in UNIX (2) – Core Map Page on Disk Process table entry • Main memory: kernel, core map, pages • Core map has an entry for each page and contains information about the contents of the page frames Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 24

Page Replacement Algorithm (1) • The page replacement algorithm is executed by the page daemon (process 2) • Page daemon wakes up every 250 msec and transfers pages to disk if the amount of free memory is less than the system parameter lotsfree (typically set to ¼ of memory) • Page daemon uses the two-handed clock algorithm Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 25

Basic Clock Algorithm (1) • The pointer (hand) points to the oldest page • When a page fault occurs, – if the R bit of the pointed page is 0 (page not referred), this page is evicted – if the R bit is 1 (page accessed), R bit is cleared and the hand is advanced to Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 26

Two-handed Clock Algorithm (2) • Page daemon has to do two passes with one core map pointer. Pass 1 clears all R bits, second pass removes pages (R bits are set between pass 1 and 2) • Page daemon maintains two pointers into the core map to speed up the process (one pass instead of two) for large memories • When page daemon runs, it first clears the R bit at the front hand, and then checks the R bit at the back hand, after which it advances both hands • Each time the page daemon runs, the hands rotate less than a full revolution, the amount depending on the number of pages needed to reach lotsfree Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 27

I/O in UNIX • All I/O devices are integrated into the file system as special files • These special files are accessed like ordinary files (ie. , file operations such as read, write, open are the same for special files Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 28

Networking in UNIX (1) • Sockets are used to establish a connection between network nodes Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 29

Networking in UNIX (2) • Sockets are created and destroyed dynamically • Creating a socket returns a file descriptor, which is needed for establishing a connection, reading data, writing data, and releasing the connection • One party makes a listen call on a local socket, which creates a buffer and blocks until data arrive • The other party makes a connect call giving as parameters the file descriptor of the local socket and the address of a remote socket (a sockets has an address in the network like the internet) • Once a connection is established, a socket functions like a pipe Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 30

UNIX I/O (1) • When a user accesses a special file, the file system determines the major and minor device numbers and whether it is a block or character special file • Major device number is used to index into either bdevsw array for block special or cdevsw for character special files • These structures contain pointers to the procedures to open the device, read, write etc. , Some of the fields of a typical cdevsw table are shown below Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 31

UNIX I/O (2) C-list The UNIX I/O system in BSD Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 32

UNIX I/O (3) • For block special files (eg. , disks) the blocks are cached in a buffer cache • The buffer cache works for both reads and writes • Usually dirty (modified) blocks are written to the disk in every 30 seconds • For character special devices, data is buffered in a chain of C-lists. A C-list block is 64 characters long, plus a count and a pointer to the next block (BSD method of character buffering) Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 33

The UNIX File System (1) Some important directories found in most UNIX systems Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 34

The UNIX File System (2) • Before linking. • After linking. (a) Before linking. (b) After linking Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 35

The UNIX File System (3) • Separate file systems • After mounting (a) Before mounting Ceng 334 - Operating Systems (b) After Mounting 36

Locking Files in UNIX (1) • Accessing a file by several processes need some critical section management • This is done by locks • A lock is defined by a file name, the starting byte and the number of bytes • When placing a lock, the process specifies to – Block: when the existing block is removed, the process is unblocked and the lock is placed – Not to block: the system call returns with a status code telling whether the lock succeeded or not Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 37

Locking Files (2) (a) File with one lock (b) Addition of a second lock (c) A third lock Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 38

System Calls for File Management • s is an error code (-1 if an error has occured) • fd is a file descriptor (a positive number: 0 standard input) • position is a file offset Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 39

The stat System Call Fields returned by the stat system call Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 40

System Calls for Directory Management • s is an error code • dir identifies a directory stream • dirent is a directory entry Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 41

UNIX File System (1) Disk layout in classical UNIX systems • Block 0 is the boot block • Block 1 is the superblock which contains information about the layout of the file system, including the number of i-nodes, number of disk blocks, and start of the list of free disk blocks Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 42

UNIX File System (2) Directory entry fields. Structure of the i-node in System V Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 43

UNIX File System (3) File descriptor table is indexed by the fd parameter and has one entry for each file The relation between the file descriptor table, the open file description Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 44

UNIX File System (4) A BSD directory with three files. The same directory after the file voluminous has been removed • File name can be 255 characters long • The first 4 fields are fixed length Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 45

Security in UNIX (1) • Each UNIX user has a UID (User ID). A UID is an integer between 0 and 65536. Files, processes and other resources are marked with the UID of their owner • The user with UID 0 is the superuser • Users can be organized in groups, which are also numbered with 16 -bit GID’s (Group ID) Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 46

Security in UNIX (2) Some examples of file protection modes Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 47

System Calls for File Protection • s is an error code • uid and gid are the UID and GID, respectively Ceng 334 - Operating Systems 48