CHAPTER 1 REVIEW GEOGRAPHY GEOGRAPHY INVENTED BY GREEK

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW GEOGRAPHY • GEOGRAPHY INVENTED BY GREEK SCHOLAR ERATOSTHENES, AND IT MEANS THE STUDY OF WHERE THINGS ARE FOUND ON EARTHS SURFACE AND THE REASONS FOR THE LOCATION. • TO EXPLAIN WHY EVERY PLACE IS UNIQUE, GEOGRAPHERS HAVE TWO BASIC CONCEPTS. 1. PLACE; IS A SPECIFIC POINT ON EARTH DISTINGUISHED BY A PARTICULAR CHARACTERISTIC, AND IT OCCUPIES A UNIQUE LOCATION OR POSITION ON EARTH. 2. REGION; IS AN AREA OF EARTH DEFINED BY ONE OR MORE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTIC. GEOGRAPHERS DIVIDE THE WORLD INTO A NUMBER OF REGIONS SUCH AS NORTH AMERICA AND LATIN AMERICA. • TO EXPLAIN WHY EVER PLACE IS UNIQUE GEOGRAPHERS HAVE THREE BASIC CONCEPTS. 1. SCALE-IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PORTION OF EARTH BEING STUDIED AND EARTH AS A WHOLE. GEOGRAPHERS STUDY A VARIETY OF SCALES, FROM LOCAL (CITY) TO GLOBAL (WORLDWIDE) 2. SPACE-REFERS TO THE PHYSICAL GAP OR INTERVAL BETWEEN TWO OBJECTS 3. CONNECTION- REFERS TO RELATIONSHIP AMONG PEOPLE AND OBJECTS ACROSS THE BARRIER OF SPACE.

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW THE SCIENCE OF MAPMAKING • CARTOGRAPHY-IS THE SCIENCE OF MAP MAKING. • MAP-IS A TWO DIMENSIONAL OR FLAT SCALE MODEL OF EARTH’S SURFACE. EARLY USES OF MAPS 1. THALES OF MILETUS (CA. 624 -CA. 546 B. C) APPLIED PRINCIPLES OF GEOMETRY TO MEASURING LAND AREA 2. PYTHAGORAS- 570 -495 B. C MAY HAVE BEEN THE FIRST TO PROPOSE OF SPHERICAL WORLD AND ARGUED THAT THE SPHERE WAS THE MOST PERFECT FORM. 3. ERATOSTHENES 276 -195 B. C INVENTOR OF GEOGRAPHY ACCEPTED THAT THE EARTH WAS ROUND. DIVIDED THE EARTH INTO FIVE CLIMATES. • MAPS ARE USED AS A TOOL FOR REFERENCE; HELPS FIND THE SHORTEST ROUTE BETWEEN TWO PLACES. • AS A TOOL FOR COMMUNICATION; HELPS US UNDERSTAND HUMAN ACTIVITY, PHYSICAL FEATURES AND DISTRIBUTION. • TYPES OF MAPS: PHYSICAL MAP, POLITICAL MAP AND THEMATIC MAPS; GDP, DISTRIBUTION OF RELIGIONS…… • MAPS SCALE: THE AMOUNT OF EARTH SURFACE THAT IS DEPICTED ON A MAP; RATIO IS THE FRACTION THAT REPRESENTS THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE MAP AND EARTH’S SURFACE.

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW ISSUES WITH MAPS • PROJECTION; IS THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF TRANSFERRING LOCATIONS ON EARTH’S SURFACE TO A FLAT MAP. -SOME DISTORTIONS ARE ACCEPTABLE AND OTHERS ARE NOT -THEREFORE, DIFFERENT MAP PROJECTIONS EXIST IN ORDER TO PRESERVE SOME PROPERTIES OF THE SPHERELIKE BODY AT THE EXPENSE OF OTHER PROPERTIES. -EVERY DISTINCT MAP PROJECTION DISTORTS IN A DISTINCT WAY, BY DEFINITION. -THE STUDY OF MAP PROJECTIONS IS THE CHARACTERIZATION OF THESE DISTORTIONS. THERE IS NO LIMIT TO THE NUMBER OF POSSIBLE MAP PROJECTIONS. • SHAPE; AN AREAS SHAPE CAN BE DISTORTED • DISTANCE; DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS MAY BECOME INCREASED OR IT COULD DECREASED. • RELATIVE SIZE; AREAS MAY BE ALTERED SO THAT ONE AREA MAY APPEAR LARGER. • DIRECTION; DIRECTION FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER CAN BE DISTORTED. • DIFFERENT TYPE OF PROJECTION: MERCATOR, ROBINSON, AND HOMOLOSINE

MAP SCALE • MAP SCALE REFERS TO THE RELATIONSHIP (OR RATIO) BETWEEN DISTANCE ON A MAP AND THE CORRESPONDING DISTANCE ON THE GROUND. • FOR EXAMPLE, ON A 1: 100000 SCALE MAP, 1 CM ON THE MAP EQUALS 1 KM ON THE GROUND. • MAP SCALE IS OFTEN CONFUSED OR INTERPRETED INCORRECTLY, PERHAPS BECAUSE THE SMALLER THE MAP SCALE, THE LARGER THE REFERENCE NUMBER AND VICE VERSA. • FOR EXAMPLE, A 1: 100000 SCALE MAP IS CONSIDERED A LARGER SCALE THAN A 1: 250000 SCALE MAP.

TYPES OF PROJECTION The Robinson projection is useful for displaying information across the oceans. Its major disadvantage is that by allocating space to the oceans the land areas are much smaller that on interrupted maps of the same size.

TYPES OF PROJECTION The Mercator projection has several advantages; shape is distorted very little, direction is consistent and the map is rectangular. Its greatest disadvantage is that relative size is grossly distorted toward the poles, making high latitude places look much larger than they actually are.

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW CONTEMPORARY TOOLS • THE GEOGRAPHIC GRID AND NEW INNOVATIONS HAS IMPROVED THE PROCESS OF MAP MAKING AND LOCATING PLACES ON EARTH. IT’S MADE IT EASIER TO LOCATE AREAS USING LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE. • INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE; 24 TIME ZONES • GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM; (GPS) SYSTEM THE DETERMINES THE PRECISE POSITION OF SOMETHING ON EARTH. • GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCE : (GISCIENCE) IS THE ANALYZATION OF DATA ABOUT EARTH ACQUIRED THROUGH SATELLITE AND OTHER ELECTRONIC INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES. • GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM: (GIS) CAPTURES AND STORES, QUERIES AND DISPLAYS THE GEOGRAPHIC DATA ON MAPS. • REMOTE SENSING; ACQUISITION OF DATA ABOUT EARTH’S SURFACE FROM A SATELLITE ORBITING EARTH OR FROM OTHER LONG DISTANCE METHODS. • GEOTAGGING; SYSTEM THAT IDENTIFIES AND STORES INFORMATION BY LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE COORDINATES. THIS SYSTEM HAS CAUSED ISSUES OVER PRIVACY. • VOLUNTEERED GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION: (VGI) IS THE CREATION AND DISSEMINATION OF GEOGRAPHIC DATA CONTRIBUTED VOLUNTARILY AND FOR FREE BY INDIVIDUALS OR ARMATURE SCIENTISTS. • PARTICIPATORY GIS: (PGIS) IS COMMUNITY-BASED MAPPING. THEY COLLECT AND DISSEMINATE LOCAL KNOWLEDGE AND INFORMATION THROUGH ELECTRONIC DEVICES. • MASHUP; IS A MAP THAT OVERLAYS DATA FROM ONE SOURCE ON TOP OF A MAP BY MAPPING SERVICE SUCH AS GOOGLE MAPS OR GOOGLE EARTH.

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW PLACE AND REGION • PLACE: IS A SPECIFIC POINT ON EARTH DISTINGUISHED BY A PARTICULAR CHARACTERISTIC. EVERY PLACE OCCUPIES A UNIQUE LOCATION OR POSITION ON EARTH’S SURFACE. 1. LOCATION: THE POSITION THAT SOMETHING OCCUPIES ON EARTH’S SURFACE. 2. PLACE NAME: (TOPONYM) IS THE NAME GIVEN TO A PLACE ON EARTH. (PALM SPRINGS, COACHELLA VALLEY, ORANGE COUNTY, NEWPORT BEACH) 3. SITE: IS THE PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF A PLACE. IT MAY INCLUDE CLIMATE, WATER, TOPOGRAPHY, SOIL OR ELEVATION. 4. SITUATION: IS THE LOCATION OF A PLACE RELATIVE TO OTHER PLACES, SITUATION IS A VALUABLE WAY TO INDICATE LOCATION FOR TWO REASONS. 1. FINDING AN UNFAMILIAR PLACE AND 2. UNDERSTANDING THE IMPORTANCE OF A PLACE. • REGION: IS DEFINED AS AN AREA OF EARTH DEFINED BY ONE OR MORE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS. GEOGRAPHERS HAVE IDENTIFIED THREE TYPES OF REGIONS. 1. FORMAL REGION: (UNIFORM REGION) IS AN AREA WITHIN WHICH EVERYONE SHARES IN COMMON ONE OR MORE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS. THE SHARED FEATURE COULD BE A CULTURAL VALUE, LANGUAGE, ECONOMIC ACTIVITY, OR EVEN CLIMATE OR TYPES OF CROPS. 2. FUNCTIONAL REGION: (NODAL REGION) AN AREA ORGANIZED AROUND A NODE OR FOCAL POINT. (TV SIGNAL, PADRES STADIUM IN DOWNTOWN SAN DIEGO, DOWNTOWN AREA (PS OR LA) 3. VERNACULAR REGION: (PERCEPTUAL REGION) IS AN AREA THAT PEOPLE BELIEVE EXISTS AS PART OF THEIR CULTURAL IDENTITY. (BIBLE BELT, CHINA TOWN, LITTLE ITALY)

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW GLOBALIZATION • ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION: HAS BEEN LED PRIMARILY BY TRANSITIONAL CORPORATIONS OR MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS. THESE CORPORATIONS CONDUCT RESEARCH, OPERATE FACTORIES AND SELLS PRODUCTS IN MANY COUNTRIES, NOT JUST WHERE ITS HEADQUARTERS AND PRINCIPAL SHARE HOLDERS ARE LOCATED. • CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION: IS LEADING TO A UNIFORM “GLOBAL” LANDSCAPE. THE GLOBALIZATION OF CULTURE IS CREATED PLACES WITH SIMILAR CULTURAL BELIEFS, RELIGION, AND LANGUAGE. (FOOD, FAITH, LINGUA FRANCA) • PROS AND CONS OF GLOBALIZATION • PRO: ACCESS TO RESOURCES, MANUFACTURED GOODS, JOBS, INFRASTRUCTURE, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STABILITY, ETHNIC DIVERSITY, AND MIGRATION • CONS: LOSS OF CULTURE AND CHALLENGES TO ETHNIC CULTURE AND IDEAS, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT, LOSS OF LANGUAGE, ETHNIC DIVERSITY AND MIGRATION, POLITICAL DIVISION, SOCIAL DIVISION.

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW DISTRIBUTION OF FEATURES AND DISTRIBUTION OF CULTURAL IDENTITY • SPACE: IS DEFINED AS THE PHYSICAL GAP OR INTERVAL BETWEEN TWO OBJECTS. • DISTRIBUTION OF FEATURES WITH IN SPACE 1. DISTRIBUTION: THE ARRANGEMENT OF A FEATURE IN SPACE. 2. DENSITY: IS THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH SOMETHING OCCURS IN SPACE. 3. CONCENTRATION: THE EXTENT OF A FEATURE’S SPREAD OVER SPACE. 4. PATTERN: IS THE GEOMETRIC ARRANGEMENT OF OBJECTS IN SPACE. • DISTRIBUTION OF CULTURAL IDENTITY 1. ETHNICITY: SOCIAL GROUP THAT HAS A COMMON NATIONAL OR CULTURAL TRADITION. 2. GENDER: EITHER OF THE TWO SEXES (MALE AND FEMALE), ESPECIALLY WHEN CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES RATHER THAN BIOLOGICAL ONES. (TODAY THIS TERM HAS A BROADER DEFINITION) 3. SEXUAL ORIENTATION: OPENLY GAY, BISEXUAL AND TRANSGENDER PEOPLE • INEQUALITY OF SPACE; 1. UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT DUE TO ECONOMIC RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGY.

CULTURAL IDENTITY AND CONTEMPORARY GEOGRAPHIC THOUGHT • GEOGRAPHERS TAKE A RANGE OF APPROACHES TO CULTURAL IDENTITY AND SPACE. 1. POSTSTRUCTURALIST GEOGRAPHY: EXAMINES HOW THE POWERFUL IN A SOCIETY DOMINATE OR SEEK TO CONTROL THE LESS POWERFUL. HOW THE DOMINATED OCCUPY, THE IDEOLOGIES, VALUES AND SYSTEMS OF THE RULING ELITE. 2. HUMANISTIC GEOGRAPHY: IS A BRANCH OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY THAT EMPHASIZES THE DIFFERENT WAYS THAT INDIVIDUALS FORM IDEAS ABOUT PLACE AND GIVE PLACES SYMBOLIC MEANINGS. (OPENLY GAY MEN IN PALMS SPRINGS OR SAN FRANCISCO) 3. BEHAVIORAL GEOGRAPHY: EMPHASIZES THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS FOR INDIVIDUAL HUMAN ACTIONS IN A SPACE. SO GEOGRAPHERS LOOK AT DISTINCTIVE SPATIAL PATTERNS BY GENDER, ETHNICITY, AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION, WHICH ARE CONSTRUCTED BY THE ATTITUDES AND ACTIONS OF CULTURAL GROUPS AS WELL AS THE LARGER SOCIETY.

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW DIFFUSION • DIFFUSION: IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH A FEATURE SPREADS ACROSS SPACE FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER. A HEARTH IS A PLACE FROM WHICH AN INNOVATION ORIGINATES. • CONNECTIONS CAN HAVE SEVERAL RESULTS; 1. ASSIMILATION: IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH A GROUP’S CULTURE FEATURES ARE ALTERED TO RESEMBLE THOSE OF ANOTHER GROUP. 2. ACCULTURATION: IS THE PROCESS OF CHANGES IN CULTURE THAT RESULT FROM THE MEETING OF TWO GROUPS. THE TWO GROUPS RETAIN TWO DISTINCT CULTURE FEATURES. 3. SYNCRETISM: IS THE COMBINATION OF ELEMENTS OF TWO GROUPS INTO A NEW CULTURAL FEATURE. • TYPES OF DIFFUSION 1. RELOCATION DIFFUSION: THE SPREAD OF AN IDEA THROUGH PHYSICAL MOVEMENT OF PEOPLE FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER. 2. EXPANSION DIFFUSION: THE SPREAD OF A FEATURE FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER IN AN ADDITIVE PROCESS. 3. HIERARCHICAL DIFFUSION: THE SPREAD OF AN IDEA FROM PERSONS OR NODES OF AUTHORITY OR POWER TO OTHER PERSONS OR PLACES 4. CONTAGIOUS DIFFUSION: IS THE RAPID WIDESPREAD DIFFUSION OF A CHARACTERISTIC THROUGHOUT THE POPULATION. 5. STIMULUS DIFFUSION: IS THE SPREAD OF AN UNDERLYING PRINCIPLE EVEN THOUGH A CHARACTERISTIC ITSELF APPARENTLY FAILS TO DIFFUSE. • DISTANCE DECAY • CONTACT DIMINISHES WITH INCREASING DISTANCE AND EVENTUALLY DISAPPEARS. (THE INTERNET, RAILROAD, SHIPS HAVE ALL MADE CONTRIBUTIONS TO DISTANCE DECAY.

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW SUSTAINABILITY • THREE PILLARS OF SUSTAINABILITY 1. THE ENVIRONMENT PILLAR: CONSERVATION, PRESERVATION, RESOURCES, RENEWABLE AND NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES. 2. THE SOCIETY PILLAR: HUMAN NEEDS, FOOD RESOURCES, CONSUMER GOODS 3. THE ECONOMY PILLAR: NATURAL RESOURCES, MARKETS, SUPPLY AND DEMAND, INNOVATIONS AND TECHNOLOGY, • EARTH’S PHYSICAL SYSTEM 1. ATMOSPHERE: A THIN LAYER OF GASSES SURROUNDING EARTH 2. HYDROSPHERE: ALL OF THE WATER ON AND NEAR THE EARTH’S SURFACE 3. LITHOSPHERE: EARTH’S CRUST AND A PORTION OF UPPER MANTLE DIRECTLY BELOW THE CRUST. 4. BIOSPHERE: ALL LIVING ORGANISMS ON EARTH, INCLUDING PLANTS AND ANIMALS AS WELL AS MICROORGANISMS. 5. BIOTIC: SYSTEM COMPOSED OF LIVING ORGANISMS 6. ABIOTIC: SYSTEM COMPOSED OF NON-LIVING OR INORGANIC MATTER. • SUSTAINABILITY’S CRITICS • ITS TOO LATE TO DISCUSS SUSTAINABILITY BECAUSE THE WORLD WILDLIFE FUND ARGUES THAT HUMANS ARE ALREADY USING ALL OF THE PRODUCTIVE LAND NONE IS LEFT FOR FUTURE GROWTH. • EARTH’S RESOURCES HAVE NO MAXIMUM LIMITS. • ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM V. POSSIBILISM • POSSIBILISM ARGUES THAT THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT MAY LIMIT SOME HUMAN ACTIONS BUT PEOPLE HAVE THE ABILITY TO ADJUST TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT. • ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM ARGUES THAT THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT CAUSES SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENT DETERMINES DEVELOPMENT.

THEMES OF GEOGRAPHY