Chapter 1 Psychology An Introduction What is psychology

Chapter 1 Psychology: An Introduction

What is psychology? • Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. • Psychology is not limited to the study of humans, it is intended to include other animals as well as the rationale for animal study • Psychologists use accepted standard techniques to build a body of knowledge about behavior and mental processes

Psychology: Science and Practice • Psychologists beliefs are not built on: Faith-based beliefs Traditions Common sense Empirical evidence: evidence gathered through direct sensory experience or observation

How do psychologists approach problems? What are the goals of psychology? Scientific method: • Collect data through careful, systematic observation (DESCRIBE) • Attempt to explain what they observed by developing theories (UNDERSTAND) • Make new predictions (HYPOTHESES) based on theories (PREDICT) • Systematically test predictions to determine if correct (CONTROL)

Research>facts>theory • Theory: a general principle or set of principles proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related • necessary to enable scientists to fit separate pieces of data into meaningful frameworks • Stimulate debate and further knowledge

Replication • Process of questioning findings and then repeating a study with different participants and a different investigator to verify research findings

Thinking like a scientist • Critical thinking: – Process of objectively evaluating claims, propositions, and conclusions to determine whether they follow logically from the evidence presented • This thinking is independent: do not accept and believe what is read or heard • This thinking suspends judgment: gather information on all sides of an issue before taking a position • This thinking modifies or abandons prior judgment: evaluates new evidence, even when it contradicts preexisting beliefs

Research Methods • Naturalistic Observation: observer bias • Case Studies: single individual, small number studied in great depth, over extended period of time • Surveys: uses interviews, questionnaires to gather info on attitudes/beliefs • Correlational Method: looks at relationship between two characteristics, events, behaviors • Experimental Research: experimental method, independent variable, experimental group, control group, experimenter bias • Multimethod Research

The importance of sampling • Population: entire group of interest to researchers • Sample: part of population that is studied in order to reach conclusions about an entire population • Representative samples: mirrors the population of interest; important subgroups • Biased sample: does not adequately reflect population

The Growth of Psychology Varying Perspectives in Psychology “Psychology has a long past, but a short history. ” – Aristotle – Plato – Rene Descartes (1596 -1650) – Charles Darwin (1809 -1882)

Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt • first formal psychological laboratory 1879 • Perception • Introspection Edward Bradford Titchener • Cornell University • The science of consciousness- physical sensations, feelings, images

Functionalism William James 1875 • Perceptions, emotions, images cannot be separated • Consciousness flows in a continuous stream • Studies how an organism learns to function in its environment

Behaviorism John B. Watson • Behavior is a learned response to something in the environmentconditioning • Little Albert • Tabula rasa BF Skinner • reinforcement

Gestalt • German psychologists interested in perception- and the tricks the mind plays on itself • Gestalt means “whole” or “form’- we have a tendency to see patterns, to distinguish an object from its background, to complete a picture with a few cues • Rejected structuralists breaking down of perception and thought into elements

Psychodynamic Psychology Sigmund Freud • “free will” is an illusion • Humans are motivated by unconscious instincts and urges not available to the rational, conscious part of the mind • Psychoanalysis • “fixated” at stages

Existential and Humanistic Psychology • Existential: focuses on the meaninglessness of modern life, how these factors lead to apathy and psychological problems – Guides people towards inner sense of identity Humanistic: human beings must learn to realize their human potential Possibilities of non-verbal experiences, altered states of consciousness, “letting go”

Current Trends: Cognitive Psychology • Study of the mental processes – thinking – Learning – Feeling – Remembering – Making decisions and judgments

Developmental Psychology • Concerned with the lifelong process of human mental and physical growth from conception to death • Ex. Child psychologists • Adolescent psychologists

Physiological Psychology • Investigate biological basis for human behavior, thoughts, emotions • Ex. – Psychobiologists- study the body’s biochemistry- how hormones, medications, drugs affect people – Neuropsychologists- study the brain and the nervous system – Behavioral geneticists- study the impact of heredity on behavior

Experimental Psychology Psychologists conduct research on psychological processes • Learning • Memory • Sensation • Perception • Cognition • Motivation • Emotion

Personality Psychologists study the differences among individuals in traits such as: • Anxiety • Sociability • Self-esteem • Need for achievement • Aggressiveness

Social Psychology Social psychologists study how people influence each other • Personal attraction • Attitude formation • Prejudice • Conformity

Industrial and Organizational Psychology Psychologists concerned with practical issues relating to the workplace • Selecting and training personnel • Improving productivity • Improving working conditions • Computerization and automation

Cognitive Psychology • Study of the mental processes – thinking – Learning – Feeling – Remembering – Making decisions and judgments

Evolutionary Psychology • Study of the evolutionary origins of behavior patterns and mental processes • Asks how human beings go to be the way we are • Emphasis on cultural and gender differences

Clinical and Counseling Psychology • 50%- Clinical Psychologists: interested in diagnosis, cause and treatment of psychological disorders (mood disorders) • 50%- Counseling Psychologists: interested in normal lifetime adjustments (career, marital problems)

Multiple Perspectives • Contemporary psychologists are apt to see the various perspectives as complimentary - each approach contributes to our understanding of human behavior • Sometimes theories mesh beautifully and compliment one another and other times one approach challenges another • This is how the field of psychology advances

The Decade of Behavior: Solving Societies Problems • The American psychological Association (APA) has declared 2000 -2010 as the Decade of Behavior • Goals include: – Promoting behavioral and social science research – Increasing funding for research – Educating the public

Human Diversity Issues • Gender: roles, stereotypes, differences • Culture: intangible processes, subcultures • Race and ethnicity: ethnic identity

Psychology and Human Diversity Issues • • Feminist challenges- feminist theory Sexual orientation Ethnic and minority issues Unintended biases