CHAPTER 1 Organizational and Critical Theory Organizational Behavior

CHAPTER 1: Organizational and Critical Theory Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform 11 th Edition Robert G. Owens Thomas C. Valesky

In Search of a Vision • Organizational Behavior is the interplay between individuals and the social environment in which they work. • You must play an active role in reading and understanding this book. – Internalize meanings by reading, questioning, and discussing with others how concepts fit into the practical world of your work. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -2

Schools as Educative Organizations • Schools are unique and should not mindlessly follow business approaches to management. • Schools foster learning and personal growth of all participants, including the adults as well as the children. • School should uniquely strive for Kaizen—the Japanese principle that “small incremental steps” lead to continuous improvement. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -3

Schools as Educative Organizations (continued) • Organizational Theory helps us make more informed choices to attain our goals. • Theory enables us to describe what is going on, explain it, predict future events under given circumstances. • This is essential to the professional practitioner so they may think about ways to exercise control over events. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -4

Two Major Perspectives on Educational Organizations • Bureaucratic Theory—traditional and most common organizational theory worldwide— the “factory model”. • Nonbureaucratic Theory– we call this the Human Resources Development view. – What follows are two examples of different approaches to controlling and coordinating the behavior of people in an organization. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -5

Bureaucratic Views • Five mechanisms for dealing with controlling and coordinating the behavior of people in an organization. – Maintain firm hierarchical control of authority and close supervision of those in the lower ranks. – Establish and maintain adequate vertical communication. – Develop clear written rules and procedures to set standards and guide actions. – Promulgate follow. clear plans and schedules for participants to – Add supervisory and administrative positions to the hierarchy of the organization as necessary to meet problems that arise from changing conditions confronted by the organization. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -6

Bureaucratic Views (continued) • In 1983, A Nation At Risk, and other reports brought recommendations that resulted in: – Longer school days, focus on time on task, more homework, career ladders, calls for stronger school leadership of the principal, “tougher” curriculum, longer school calendar and others. • In essence, the bureaucratic model was at work: management decided what was to be done, they directed the workers to do it, and supervised them closely. • Although this model was not effective, it still persists today. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -7

Human Resources Development Views • Human Resources Development (HRD) views the teacher as foremost in creating instructional change. • HRD uses newer concepts such as loose coupling (allowing subunits autonomy) and the power of organization culture to influence behavior. • HRD exercises coordination and control through socialization of participants to the values and goals of the organization, rather then through written rules and close supervision. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -8

Theory X and Theory Y • Theory X rests on four assumptions that an administrator holds about people in the organization. – They dislike work, must be supervised closely, will shirk responsibility and seek formal direction, and have little ambition. • Theory Y embraces four very different assumptions administrators hold about the nature of people at work. – They view work as satisfying, exercise initiative and self direction if committed to the organization, learn to accept responsibility and seek it, and have the ability to make good decisions. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -9

Pattern A & Pattern B Behavior • Chris Argyris explains how Theory X views give rise to Behavior Pattern A in leaders: – Pattern A, Hard: characterized by nononsense, strongly directive leadership, tight controls, and close supervision. – Pattern A, Soft: involves a good deal of persuading, “buying” compliance from subordinates, benevolent paternalism, or socalled good (that is, manipulative) human relations. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -10

Pattern A & Pattern B Behavior (continued) • Theory Y views lead to Behavior Pattern B: – Characterized by a commitment to mutually shared objectives, high levels of trust, respect, satisfaction from work, and authentic, open relationships. – Pattern A, Soft, is often mistaken for Behavior Pattern B. ○ See figure 1. 1 for comparison of underlying assumptions. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -11

Rensis Likert Systems 1, 2, 3, and 4 • Based on studies of schools and other organizations, Likert identified four systems describing management styles. – System 1 --Management is seen as having no trust in subordinates. – System 2 –Management has condescending confidence and trust in subordinates. – System 3 –Management seen as having substantial but not complete trust in subordinates. – System levels. 4 --Subordinates make specific decisions at lower • These ideas are supported by many well-known researchers. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -12

Critical Theory • Highly critical of the shortcomings in the school hierarchy. • Institutionalized the oppressed. oppression is supported by • Paulo Freire lamented “banking” where children were treated as “empty vessels” passively implanted with knowledge. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -13

Critical Theory (continued) • Planted in the United States by Michael Apple (1971, 1986) and Henry Giroux (1983). • Jonathan Kozol showed that students living in poverty were in underfunded schools and fewer highly qualified teachers, leading to a hindrance in meeting state and district standards. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -14

Critical Race Theory • Solórzano (1997) defined CRT as scholarship and discourse on race and racism in an attempt to eliminate racism and racial stereotypes from society, including laws, social policy and organizational cultures. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -15

Critical Race Theory (continued) • De. Cuir and Dixson (2004) listed five tenants of CRT: – Counter-storytelling – The permanence of racism – Whiteness as property – Interest convergence – The critique of liberalism Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -16

Social Justice • Multiculturalism is insufficient • Is part of the CRT framework to eliminate racism • Typically centers around issues including race, diversity, marginalization, gender, spirituality, age, ability, and sexual orientation Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -17

Relevance • Development as an educational leader is dynamic and ongoing. • New knowledge about how people function in organizations is emerging. • Society is constantly changing and educational leaders need to be flexible and adaptive. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -18

Leadership and Vision • A leader must constantly state and revise a vision. • Continually examining the shared assumptions, beliefs, and values. • The vision is the ideal goal which the organization strives to achieve. • The mission is how the vision will be achieved. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -19

Whose Vision Is It Anyway? • Evolution from top-down to bottomup, leaders: – Consult lower levels when setting goals. – Recognize the ability to lead is distributed throughout the organization. – Encourage and facilitate participation. – Engages different viewpoints – Demonstrate collegiality and share leadership. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -20

No Child Left Behind • The reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA). • Signed by President George W. Bush on January 8, 2002. • Signified a clear shift in federal role toward policy maker and reformer. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -21

No Child Left Behind (continued) • Three goals of NCLB: – Closing the achievement gap for disadvantaged students. – Improving the preparation of teachers and increasing their compensation so as to have every classroom in America staffed by a “highly qualified” teacher by the end of the 2005– 2006 school year. – Instituting closely monitored systems of accountability for students, teachers, and schools. • NCLB mentions research 116 times, giving rise to controversy over the operational definition of scientifically-based research. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -22

Voices from the Field • Rise Above the Mark • Rocky Killion, Superintendent of Schools • West Lafayette Community School Corporation • Documentary about the corporate takeover of Indiana public schools. • Supports a model of local control rather than legislated special interests. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -23

Research Methods in Education • Education research has not been held in high esteem in the research community. • A scholarly discipline has a well-defined body of knowledge from theory and research. • The “gold standard” for research are studies that use randomized selection and assignment of participants into experimental and control groups. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -24

Examples of Gold Standard Research • Framingham Heart Study – Over 5, 000 participants since 1948. – Cigarette smoking, cholesterol level, and hypertension increased risk of heart disease. • Tennessee Student-Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR). Began in 1985 for four years. – Over 7, 000 students in 300 k-3 classes, randomly assigned. – Small classes (<18) improved student achievement and grade retention; – Low SES students gained more than high SES students; – Large classes with aides were no better than large classes with no aides. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -25

Impact on School Leaders • In the wake of NCLB, School leaders should be cognizant of what constitutes “good research”. • NCLB has been highly criticized, not in its focus on scientifically-based research or accountability, but in the over-reliance on high-stakes testing and mandates whose costs are borne by the states. – Pontiac School District v. Spellings –defendant wins in US District Court. – Many educational leadership organizations are strong advocates for changes in NCLB, such as AASA, NASSP, NAESP, NEA, CEC, and the National PTA. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -26

Assumptions, Beliefs, and Behaviors • Every culture has basic assumptions about people. • From these assumptions flow values and beliefs. • From values and beliefs flow action. • Yet in society and organizations, our expressed assumptions do not always lead to appropriate action. – Hypocrisy abounds in education and other organizations. Examples? Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -27

The Nature of Scientific Progress • Thomas 1962. Kuhn’s landmark publication in – Tranquil periods of scientific thought followed by scientific revolutions. – Example—Copernicus – Paradigms—an interlocking set of scientific, social, and political beliefs. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -28

Paradigms in Education • Education has no overarching paradigm. • The last paradigm in education was progressive education. • The conservative social and political landscape is currently attempting to force a scientific revolution as embodied in NCLB, which does not have full support of the education community. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -29

Impact of Behavioral Science-Psychology • Behaviorism—focus on extrinsic rewards and punishments to explain and control behavior. – B. F. Skinner – Remains Influential in ○ Curriculum ○ Classroom and instruction management Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -30

Psychology Paradigms (continued) • Psychoanalytic Psychology—unconscious drives and internal instincts motivate people and cause their behavior. – Sigmund Freud and Bruno Bettelheim • Cognitive Psychology—mental processes including thinking, reasoning, decision making underlie behavior (critical and creative thinking). – Jean Piaget most influential in affecting education. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -31

Psychology Paradigms (continued) • Social Psychology—the study of how individuals perceive, influence and relate to others in the context of environment. – Kurt Lewin ○B = f(p · environment), that is behavior is a function of the interaction between the person and the environment. ○ Organizations reality. ○ This ○B exist only as socially constructed has implications for leadership. = f(p · environment) is the subject of this book. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -32

Sociological and Psychological Points of View • Sociologists and Psychologists generally agree on goals of schooling. • However, goals. they differ on how to achieve those – Psychologists tend to focus on the individual interactions and relationships. – Sociologists tend to focus on group interactions and organizational characteristics. • Taken together, these points of view help us understand organizational behavior. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -33

Leadership as Coaching • Since 1980 s, education literature on school reforms and school leadership has been critical of leadership preparation. • Mortimer well: Adler’s three methods of teaching – didactic instruction – Socratic method – coaching Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -34

Leadership as Coaching (continued) • Coaching is an effective method used in leadership. – Although techniques and leadership may differ, the metaphor of an athletic coach, may be helpful. – This book uses the metaphor of a “game plan” to develop educational leadership students’ theory of practice as leaders. – See discussion and suggestions for developing a theory of practice in the Reflective Activities section of Chapter 1. Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky. Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 11 e © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1 -35