Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology 1 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

1. 1 Introduction 1. The early students of anatomy and physiology were most likely concerned with treating illnesses and injuries. 2. Early healers relied on superstitions and magic. Later, herbs and potions were used to treat certain ailments. 3. Techniques for accurate observations and performing experiments were developed. 4. Greek and Latin words are still the basis of the language for anatomy and physiology. 5. Scientific method has been used to gather information about the natural world, including the workings of the body. 2 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

1. 2 Anatomy and Physiology A. Anatomy deals with the structure (morphology) of the body and its parts; in other words, the names of the parts. B. Physiology studies the functions of these parts or asks the question, “how do they work? ” C. The two disciplines are closely interrelated because the functional role of a part depends on how it is constructed. D. Anatomists rely on observation and dissection, while physiologists employ experimentation. E. It is more common to discover new information about physiology but anatomical discoveries are being made as well. Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 3

Fig 1. 2 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 4

1. 3 Levels of Organization A. The human body is the sum of its parts and these parts can be studied at a variety of levels of organization. 1. Chemicals a. Atoms are the simplest level. b. Two or more atoms comprise a molecule. c. Macromolecules are large, biologically important molecules inside cells. 2. Organelles are aggregates of macromolecules used to carry out a specific function in the cell. 5 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Levels of organization, cont 3. Cells are the basic units of structure and function for living things. 4. Tissues are groups of cells functioning together. 5. Groups of tissues form organs that have specialized functions. 6. Groups of organs function together as organ systems. 7. Organ systems functioning together make up an organism. 6 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Fig 1. 3 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 7

1. 4 Characteristics of Life A. Fundamental characteristics of life are traits shared by all organisms. 1. Movement – change in position of the body or a body part; motion of an internal organ 2. Responsiveness – reaction to internal or external change 3. Growth – increase in size without change in shape 4. Reproduction – new organisms or new cells 5. Respiration – use of oxygen; removal of CO 2 6. Digestion – breakdown of food into simpler forms 8 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

7. Absorption – movement of substances through membranes and into fluids 8. Circulation – movement within body fluids 9. Assimilation – changing nutrients into chemically different forms 10. Excretion – removal of metabolic wastes B. Taken together, these 10 characteristics constitute metabolism – the physical and chemical events that obtain, release, and use energy. 9 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

1. 5 Maintenance of Life A. Requirements of organisms to live 1. Life depends on the availability of the following: a. Water 1) Most abundant chemical in the body 2) Required for many metabolic processes 3) Provides the environment for metabolic processes 4) Transportation medium 5) Regulated body temperature 6) Makes up intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments 10 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Fig 1. 4 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 11

1. Requirements of life, cont 1. Food 1) Provides the body with needed nutrients 2) Needed for energy, raw building materials for growth and repair, and to regulate chemical reactions 2. Oxygen – releases energy from food 3. Heat – product of metabolic reactions that controls reaction rate; temperature: measure of the degree of heat 12 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

1. Requirements of life, cont 1. Pressure 1) Force applied to something 2) Atmospheric pressure is needed for breathing 3) Hydrostatic (water) pressure is needed to move blood through blood vessels 1. Both the quality and quantity of these factors are important 13 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

B. Homeostasis 1. Maintenance of a stable internal environment is called homeostasis. 2. Homeostasis is regulated through control systems which have receptors, a set point, and effectors in common. a. Receptors are of many types whose job is to monitor for changes b. The set point is the normal value or range of values c. Effectors are muscles or glands that respond to the changes to return to stability 14 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

3. Examples include: a. Homeostatic mechanisms regulate body temperature in a manner similar to the functioning of a home heating/cooling thermostat. b. Another homeostatic mechanism employs pressure-sensitive receptors to regulate blood pressure 4. Each individual uses homeostatic mechanisms to keep body levels within a normal range; normal ranges can vary from one individual to the next. 15 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

5. Many of the body's homeostatic controls are negative feedback mechanisms. a. Responses move in the opposite direction from the change b. Reduces the amount of change from the set point c. Includes most control mechanisms in the body 16 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Fig 1. 6 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 17

Fig 1. 7 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 18

1. Positive feedback mechanisms a. Response moves further from the set point b. Change from set point gets larger c. Many positive feedback mechanisms produce unstable conditions in the body d. Examples associated with normal health 1. Blood clotting 2. Birth 19 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

1. 6 Organization of the body A. Body Cavities 1. The body can be divided into an axial portion (head, neck, and trunk) and an appendicular portion (upper and lower limbs). 2. The axial portions contains several cavities that house body organs a. Cranial cavity – brain b. Vertebral cavity – spinal cord c. Thoracic cavity – heart, lungs, mediastinum 20 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

d. Abdominopelvic cavity 1. Abdominal cavity – viscera of digestion and the spleen 2. Pelvic cavity – end of large intestine, urinary bladder, and internal reproductive organs e. A broad, thin muscle called the diaphragm separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities 21 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Fig 1. 9 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 22

1. Smaller cavities within the head include the oral cavity, nasal cavity, orbital cavities, and middle ear cavities Fig 1. 10 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 23

B. Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes 1. Double-layered membranes; the parietal portion attaches to wall cavity and the visceral portion covers the internal organ. 2. The thoracic cavity is lined with pleural membranes; the parietal pleura lines the cavities while the visceral pleura covers the lungs. A thin layer of serous fluid separates the two layers. 3. The heart is surrounded by pericardial membranes. The parietal pericardium makes up an outer sac and the visceral pericardium covers the heart. Serous fluid separates the two layers. 4. Peritoneal membranes line the abdominopelvic cavity; a parietal peritoneum lines the wall while the visceral peritoneum covers the organs. 24 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Fig 1. 11 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 25

Fig 1. 12 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 26

C. Organ Systems 1. Body Covering a. The integumentary system, including skin, hair, nails, and various glands, covers the body. It protects underlying tissues, helps regulate body temperature, senses changes, and synthesizes certain products. 27 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

2. Support and Movement a. The skeletal system is made up of bones and ligaments. It supports, protects, provides frameworks, stores inorganic salts, and houses blood-forming tissues. b. The muscular system consists of the muscles that provide body movement, posture, and body heat. 28 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

3. Integration and Coordination a. The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs. It integrates incoming information from receptors and sends impulses to muscles and glands. b. The endocrine system, includes the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pineal, and thymus glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes, along with other organs that secrete hormones. It helps to integrate metabolic functions. 29 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

4. Transport a. The cardiovascular system, is made up of the heart and blood vessels. It distributes oxygen, nutrients, and hormones throughout the body while removing wastes from the cells. b. The lymphatic system, consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen. It drains excess tissue fluid and includes cells of immunity. 30 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

5. Absorption and Excretion a. The digestive system is made up of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs. It receives, breaks down, and absorbs nutrients. b. The respiratory system exchanges O 2 and CO 2 between the blood and air and is made up of the lungs and passageways. c. The urinary system, consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes wastes from the blood and helps to maintain water and electrolyte balance. 31 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

6. Reproduction a. The reproductive system produces new organisms. 1) The male reproductive system consists of the testes, accessory organs, and vessels that produce and conduct sperm to the female reproductive tract. 2) The female reproductive system consists of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, and external genitalia. It produces egg cells and also houses the developing offspring. 32 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Fig 1. 13 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 33

1. 7 Anatomical Terminology A. Anatomical position : body erect, face forward, upper limbs at sides with palm forward. B. Terms of relative position describe the location of one body part with respect to another. 1. Superior – above another part 2. Inferior – below another part 3. Anterior (ventral) – toward the front 4. Posterior (dorsal) – toward the back 5. Median – closer the midline 6. Lateral – toward the side 7. Bilateral – paired structures with one on each side Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 34

1. Relative position terms, cont 1. Ipsilateral – structures on the same side 2. Contralateral – structures on the opposite sides 3. Proximal – closer to point of attachment or another referenced body part 4. Distal – further from the point of attachment pr another referenced body part 5. Superficial – near the surface; peripheral – outward or near the surface 6. Deep – more internal 35 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Fig 1. 14 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 36

C. Body Sections 1. A sagittal section divides the body into right and left portions. If it passes along the midline and divides the body into equal parts it is a median or midsagittal section. A section lateral to the midline is parasagittal. 2. A transverse (horizontal) section divides the body into superior and inferior portions. 3. A frontal (coronal) section divides the body into anterior and posterior sections. 37 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Fig 1. 15 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 38

Fig 1. 16 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 39

1. Body regions 1. The abdominal area can be divided into nine regions – epigastric, right and left hypochondriac, umbilical, right and left lumbar, hypogastric, and right and left iliac Fig 1. 17 a Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 40

1. Body regions, cont 1. The abdominal area can also be divided into four quadrants – right and left upper quadrants and right and left lower quadrants Fig 1. 17 b Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 41

1. Terms for various body regions Fig 1. 18 Copyright © 2015 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education. 42