Chap 4 Packaging http www darbox comindex phpourservicesunpackagingcodes

Chap 4 Packaging http: //www. darbox. com/index. php/our-services/un-packaging-codes

Cargo Packaging

Corrugated - Cladding

Cargo Symbols http: //images. fedex. com/us/services/pdf/Freight. Packaging. Guidelines. pdf http: //www. estmarine. ee/index. php? id=20 - how to mark your cargo

Hazards of Distribution Below are the most common hazards present in distribution. These are “normal” hazards of distribution and therefore must always be considered when preparing your air freight shipment. Punctures and Abrasion: Occurs when the package shifts or comes in contact with other packages or material handling equipment during sorting and other shipping operations. They can also be the result of improper or insufficient internal packaging that does not prevent the contents from shifting, resulting in the product being damaged or the package failing to contain the product. Compression: Occurs when external forces are applied to the sides, faces or corners of a package. Stacking, shock, vibration, material handling equipment and tie-down straps all generate compression forces that may result in package or product damage. Proper packaging offers the necessary level of protection against these forces

Environmental exposures: High and low atmospheric pressures are not restricted to air transit and can have a dramatic effect on some products or packages. High and low humidity can result in condensation or corrosion, and it can greatly reduce the stiffness and compression resistance of paper based products. Temperature extremes globally can range from -80º F to +160º F and can dramatically affect the performance characteristics of packaging material. Other common environmental exposures include, but are not limited to, dirt, dust, odors and precipitation. If a product or package would be considered damaged if exposed to these hazards, then the shipper must take extra measures to ensure the package can protect the shipment from these known hazards. Shipment Handling: Proper cushioning can reduce damage caused by the shock incurred during shipment handling. It is important to note that your shipment will most likely be handled with a forklift at some point during distribution. Proper packaging must be able to protect the contents from the drops and impacts commonly associated with handling operations.

Shipment Handling: Proper cushioning can reduce damage caused by the shock incurred during shipment handling. It is important to note that your shipment will most likely be handled with a forklift at some point during distribution. Proper packaging must be able to protect the contents from the drops and impacts commonly associated with handling operations. Shock: Occurs during handling and transportation as a result of impacts with forklifts, racks, containers, floors and other shipments. Proper cushioning can reduce damage caused by shock. Most products will require some level of shock protection to prevent damage during normal distribution. Vibration: Occurs in transport vehicles like trucks, planes or ships and on virtually anything else that moves, such as forklifts or conveyor belts. Proper cushioning can absorb and reduce the negative effects vibration can have on your product

Purpose of marking Markings and labels are used on export shipping cartons and containers for several purposes, including: • to meet shipping regulations, • to assure proper handling, • to conceal the identity of the contents, • to help receivers and transport parties identify shipments. NB! Marking must be clear and easily read. If stenciling is the only means to mark the cargo units, waterproof ink must be used and letters should measure at least ¼ inch (6. 5 mm). Exceptions only pertain to bagged products or non-corrugated packaging (e. g. potting soil, bagged dog food, ladders, etc. ).

Types of marking Item marking should not be confused with shipping labels. Item markings identify all information that is particular to the contents and the vendor: • Item description, • Color, size, style (if applicable), • Case pack (number of selling units in carton), • Country of origin • Date of manufacture (month, year), • Date of expiration (day, month, year for perishable commodities

Shipping label identifies information that is particular to L/C or sales contract, such as: • where the cargo is being shipped, • order/contract/invoice/release/packing list/BL number, • consignee/buyer, • number of units in the consignment: (for example 1/49. . . 49/49 where the first number corresponds to the unit number in the packing list and the last number denotes total number of master units comprising the shipment).

hazardous commodities • All hazardous commodities must be marked in accordance with governing Laws, Regulations and International Agreements (IMO). • The Firearms Owner’s Protection Act requires that all firearms and/or ammunition dealers must first obtain a license to deal in these items from the competent authorities. * Finally, special marking (e. g. fragile, keep away from rain, keep refrigerated, etc. ) whenever required must appear on the package in compliance with ISO-780: 1997

Placement • Item marking information can be printed directly on the corrugated carton or printed on labels and applied to the shipping carton/box. * It is permissible to print all carton markings on the shipping label. * This label should then be placed on at least one side of the product. Labels required for hazardous commodities must be placed in accordance with governing regulations. • Some advice on placement of the special marks is available in the extract from below extract from "ISO-780: 1997 PACKAGING - PICTORIAL MARKING FOR HANDLING OF GOODS" Language Official language for shipping labels is English. It is recommended to repeat shipping/handling instructions in the language of the country of destination.

Chap 5 Carriage of Goods by Sea

("COGSA") The Carriage of Goods by Sea Act ("COGSA") is a United States statute governing the rights and responsibilities between shippers of cargo and ship-owners regarding ocean shipments to and from the United States. It is the U. S. enactment of the International Convention Regarding Bills of Lading, commonly known as the "Hague Rules".

Hague Rules - Amended The United States Congress, concerned that the Hague Rules did not offer shippers enough protection against damage to cargo by shipowners, amended the Hague Rules

Limitation It increased the amount that shipowners would have to pay cargo owners for damage in transit from GBP 100 per package to USD 500 per package or, for goods not shipped in packages, per customary freight unit.

Court Case This "package limitation" has become one of the most contentious and litigious areas in the field of cargo damage, particularly as it relates to the transportation of goods by ocean shipping containers.

Shipping Process 1. The Shipper - as “Shipper” you are accepting responsibility for the 2. legality of the goods that are being shipped, any import duties, supplying paperwork, and, most importantly, any charges that might arise in the event of some unusual occurrence like a port strike, a customs inspection, or an unusual delivery situation. Need to know all of the rules for importing to the specific country to which you are shipping. The International Shipping Company (the Move Manager) - It is the company that will oversee your shipment, it is the company you will sign the contract (or agreement, or estimate) with, and it is the company that will be sending your bill. It is the company you will turn to in the event of any claims for damages, updates on your shipment, and general questions about the process. http: //www. movingscam. com/articles/a-guide-to-international-shipping

3. The Origin Agent - This is the local company that will do the visual survey, i. e. it will send someone to your home to see what is being shipped before quoting for the move, in order to give an accurate quote. The Origin Agent will also pack and load the shipment. The Origin Agent might also be the Freight Forwarder, the Consolidating Warehouse, and/or the Move Manager. See below for details on these other functions. 4. The Freight Forwarder This is the company that will arrange the ocean freight and do the export documentation (including a “House Bill of Lading”, i. e. a document showing information specific to your shipment such as your name). This is also the company that will move your cargo from the pickup point to the port.

5. The Consolidating Warehouse If you do not have an exclusive container (an ocean container holding only your shipment), your goods will need to be loaded into a container with other cargo. The decision about whether to use an exclusive container will be made based on the volume of your shipment and the distance between the origin city and the port of embarkation. (LCL/FCL) 6. The Export Port This is the actual port where the container is brought (already loaded and sealed) to be loaded onto the ship. For practical purposes this means nothing to you, as you won’t be dealing with it in any way. The only important thing to know is whether the Origin Port Fees and Origin Terminal Handling Charges are included in your quote. They will usually be listed as “Origin Port Fees” or “OTHC” (Origin Terminal Handling Charges).

7. The Ship Line This is the company that owns the ship. It will issue the “Master Bill of Lading” or “Seaway Bill of Lading”. For the most part, this will be invisible to you; however, it makes good sense to ask which ship line your goods will sail on, for two reasons: To make sure the quote is based on actual rates, and is not just a “guess”. 8. The Container Line is the company that owns and rents out the ocean container. This may or may not be the same as the Ship Line, but for all practical purposes it won’t make a difference to you.

9. The Destination Port This is where the goods are finally unloaded in the country of destination. You will usually have no dealings with the port. However, you will owe them money! It is very important that you check your price quote to make sure that it includes Destination Port Fees and DTHC (Destination Terminal Handling Charges), or at least shows what they will be. 10. The Customs Bonded Warehouse This is the destination warehouse where your goods will be held until they clear customs. How this is handled will vary from country to country.

11. The Destination Agent This is the company in the destination country that will handle the customs clearing procedures, dealings with the port, and delivery to your residence. You can use the Destination Agent as your International Shipping Company/Move Manager to arrange for the entire shipment ( it is standard to use a company in the country of origin). 12. The Broker A Broker is a Move Manager that does not do any of the other work. A Broker is not to be confused with a Freight Forwarder that might subcontract the Origin Agent and the Destination Agent, because the Freight Forwarder is doing something vital to the international shipping process even if you don’t see it being done

Carriers' duties Under the Rules, the carrier's main duties are to "properly and carefully load, handle, stow, carry, keep, care for, and discharge the goods carried" and to "exercise due diligence to. . . make the ship seaworthy" and to ". . . properly man, equip and supply the ship". It is implicit (from the common law) that the carrier must not deviate from the agreed route nor from the usual route; but Article IV(4) provides that "any deviation in saving or attempting to save life or property at sea or any reasonable deviation shall not be deemed to be an infringement or breach of these Rules".

Cont. . The carrier's duties are not "strict", but require only a reasonable standard of professionalism and care; and Article IV allows the carrier a wide range of situations exempting them from liability on a cargo claim. These exemptions include destruction or damage to the cargo caused by: fire, perils of the sea, Act of God, & Act of war. A controversial provision exempts the carrier from liability for "neglect or default of the master. . . in the navigation or in the management of the ship".

Cont. . This provision is considered unfair to the shipper; and both the later Hamburg Rules and Rotterdam Rules refuse exemption for negligent navigation and management. Also, whereas the Hague-Visby Rules require a ship to be seaworthy only "before and at the beginning" of the voyage, under the Rotterdam Rules the carrier will have to keep the ship seaworthy throughout the voyage (although this new duty will be to a reasonable standard that is subject to the circumstances of being at sea).

How to Select an International Shipping Company 1. Start Sorting International shipping is expensive. It makes no sense to ship something only to arrive at destination to find you won’t or can’t use it, or should have thrown it away years ago. 2. Get References from Knowledgeable People or Groups You should seek out recommendations of International Shipping Companies from people who know the country you are moving. 3. Select Three International Shipping Companies to Get Quotes From them. Now that you’ve checked with friends, family, people who have already moved to your destination, the local consulate, and possibly your employer, you should have a list of suggested companies.

4. Get Visual Surveys Call or email (or both) the three companies you have chosen and have them send someone to survey the goods. 5. Read the Entire Quote The surveyors have come and gone and now you have the quotes. f all you are looking at is the “price” you are missing the total cost. Read everything, and what you don’t understand, question. Get the answers in writing. It might help to make a spreadsheet so you can compare the entire cost, not just the “door to door” cost. Pay special attention to what is NOT included! This is where you will find what are going to be the extra charges, and you must know in advance what is going to be due (as opposed to may be due). Note – Destination Port Fees and Terminal Handling Charges are routinely excluded from door-to-door quotes. Make sure your quote shows, in writing, what these fees will be! Never assume that one company will charge the same as another company for these fees.

Chap 5 Dangerous Goods

Carriage of Dangerous Goods IMDG Code classes Class 1: Explosives Class 2: Gases Class 2. 1: flammable gases Class 2. 2: non-flammable, non-toxic gases Class 2. 3: toxic gases Class 3: Flammable liquids Class 4: Flammable solids; substances liable to spontaneous combustion; substances which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases Class 4. 1: flammable solids, self-reactive substances and desensitized explosives Class 4. 2: substances liable to spontaneous combustion Class 4. 3: substances which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases

Class 5: Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides Class 5. 1: oxidizing substances Class 5. 2: organic peroxides Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances Class 6. 1: toxic substances Class 6. 2: infectious substances Class 7: Radioactive material Class 8: Corrosive substances Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous substances and articles

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Explosive Flammable Liquid class 2 Non – Flammable Gas Toxic Gas Flammable Liquid class 3 Flammable Solid Spontaneously combustible Class 4 Dangerous When Wet 4. 3 Hazard 9. Oxidizing Materials Hazard 10. Organic Peroxides. . . 11. Toxic Hazard Class 6 12. Infectious Substances 6 2 13. Radioactive 14. Class 8 Corrosive Hazard Labels. 15. Dry ice

Hazard labels Each of the hazard classes are also identified by labels: 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 11 12 13 14 15

MDG Code • International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code is accepted as an international guideline to the safe transportation or shipment of dangerous goods or hazardous materials by water on vessel. • IMDG Code is intended to protect crew members and to prevent marine pollution in the safe transportation of hazardous materials by vessel. It is recommended to governments for adoption or for use as the basis for national regulations.

The implementation of the Code is mandatory in conjunction with the obligations of the members of united nation government under the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78). It is intended for use not only by the mariner but also by all those involved in industries and services connected with shipping

HNS The HNS Convention covers hazardous and noxious substances that are included in the IMDG code. The code is updated and maintained by the DSC Sub-Committee of the International Maritime Organization every 2 years.

IMDG CODE – what is it The Code lays down: 1. basic principles; 2. detailed recommendations for individual substances, materials and articles, 3. a number of recommendations for good operational practice including advice on: - terminology, - packing, labelling, stowage, segregation and - handling, and emergency response action. The two-volume Code is divided into seven parts:

imdg vol 1 Volume 1 (parts 1, 2 and 4 -7 of the Code) contains sections on: * general provisions, definitions, training * classification * packing and tank provisions * consignment procedures * construction and testing of packaging, IBCs (Intermediate bulk container), large packaging, portable tanks and road tank vehicles * transport operations

Imdg code: vol 2 Volume 2 contains: the Dangerous Goods List (equivalent to the schedules in previous editions of the Code), presented in tabular format * limited quantities exceptions * the Index * appendices

The Supplement contains the following texts related to the IMDG Code: * EMS Guide - Emergency Response Procedures for Ships Carrying Dangerous Goods (Em. S Guide), * Medical First Aid Guide * Reporting Procedures * Packing Cargo Transport Units * Safe Use of Pesticides * INF Code ( Irradiated Nuclear Fuel) Plutonium and High-Level Radioactive http: //www. intermanager. org/2013/09/imo-sub-committee-on-dangerous-goods-solid-cargoes-and-containers 18 th-session-16 -20 -september-2013/ -

Importance of UN-approved packaging for dangerous goods • The ability of packaging to contain dangerous goods during transit is obviously critical to the safety of the transport. • Only packages that are certified to have passed UN packaging standards tests may be used for dangerous goods. (IMDG 4. 1. 1.

Responsibility for selection of UNapproved packaging • It is the shipper’s legal duty to select suitable packaging and fill packages correctly. • Included in the shipper’s declaration is the certification that he has packaged the dangerous goods correctly (which means in UN–approved packages). (IMDG 5. 4. 5. 1

* Shipping container packers should check that packages display the UN test certification mark (see below). * If aware that packages do not bear the test mark, the packages are not fit for shipment by sea and must not be offered for marine transport

UN-approved packaging and UN packaging code • Package manufacturers produce packages for dangerous goods whose construction and performance are tested to UN standards. • Packages are drop, stack, leak and pressure tested. • Package manufacturers register approved package designs with the competent authority of the country where the package is manufactured. * shippers of dangerous goods are able to select a UNapproved package of a type suitable for their product.

* All packages manufactured under the UN certification scheme for the carriage of dangerous goods are marked with a code that indicates the physical nature of the product for which they are suitable, and whether the packages are suitable for dangerous goods of packing group I, II or III. (See IMDG 6. 1. 2). The code always starts with the letters “UN” in a circle. * Packages for packing group I will be built to a higher standard and therefore will be more expensive than packages of the same type built for a lower packing group. The codes are usually stamped into metal or plastic drums and IBCs, and are printed on boxes and bags.

* Packages that do not display the UN certification mark must not be used for dangerous Goods. * Below is an example of a typical code for a steel drum suitable for dangerous goods liquids of packaging group II or III with a relative density (specific gravity) of up to 1. 3

Dangerous goods packaging – UN test approved mark Successfully tested package designs are certified, made under licence and are marked with a UN approval mark. un = United Nations 1 = Drum A = Steel 1 = Non-removable head UN – 1 A 1/Y 1. 3/110/05/US/9912 Y = Packing group II or III 1. 3 = Relative density 110 = Hydraulic pressure test in k. Pa (kelvin Pascals) 05 = Year of manufacture 2005 US = The authorising country 9912 = Certification number of package design

Shipping Practice and Documentation 4. 0 PACKAGING 51

Outline 1. Packing 2. Marking and Special Cargoes 3. Marking and Labelling 52

Preparing Cargo for Shipment • During the shipping process, equipment and material will receive treatment characteristic of stevedoring operations. • Delicate or sensitive equipment must be well packed and protected by means of the packaging used. • Grantees and their packing agents should not only give consideration for providing additional packing, but should also consider the type of materials utilized for shock-absorbent packing. 53

Preparing Cargo for Shipment • Contact Port Operations before shipping any unique or unusual cargo, anything very large or unusually heavy, any odd-sized cargo, and any intermodal container cargo. • Provide them with your shipping information so they can prepare for receiving and transshipment. • If any special handling is needed, Port Operations will know the requirements you would have to meet. If you have questions, call first. 54

Packing Material • Avoid using materials that are not easily degradable. That includes most plastics, especially polystyrene cushioning materials • Do not use polystyrene, polyurethane foam, or silicone sponge. Suitable alternatives are bubble wrap, shredded paper, corrugated cardboard, burlap, and packing tissue. Paper products are more easily recycled, and therefore, more suitable for shipping material to Antarctica. There are other restrictions on other packing material. 55

Packing Material • Some cargo shipments have been delayed on entry to both New Zealand Chile, due to the condition of the packing crates, when the outside material failed inspection. Wooden packaging material (WPM) like pallets, crates and boxes are often reused to return material to the United States, which has some of the strictest requirements. 56

Wood Packing and Lumber Material The New Zealand (Example) • The New Zealand government has strict controls and diligent inspections for importing any wood products. They require clearance for imported timber, and forest products of any kind — sometimes with quarantine restrictions. All shipments of lumber must be accompanied by a certificate from the manufacturer stating the extent and level of any treatment process. 57

The New Zealand (Example) • Inspections are conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF) to prevent accidentally introducing any insects or fungi that could damage New Zealand forests and timber industry. These inspections include all wooden and plywood packing cases: crates, pallets, wood packing blocks, and dunnage. All wood products must be free of bark and visible signs of insects, worms, or fungi 58

The New Zealand (Example) • Wood products that can not be verified as being free of contaminants will be stopped at the port of entry and dealt with as directed by an MAF inspector. • Grantees and their shipping agents should ensure all packing material conforms to New Zealand regulations: 59

New Zealand regulations (Example): 1. Wood packaging must comply with the import requirements. 2. MAF will risk profile the whole shipment and select a subset for inspection. 3. Any untreated or uncertified wood packaging found will be refused entry, or treated as required, or destroyed — regardless of whether pests are found. 4. A notice of non-compliance will be issued for any untreated or uncertified wood packaging. 5. Information from these non-compliances will feedback in to the risk profiling system — meaning that importers who develop a history of non-compliance will be selected for inspection more frequently; further delaying cargo. 60

Wood Packing Material, Chile • The government of Chile has strict controls on importing wood products. • Grantees should be sure that all wooden crates used for shipping through Chile, to Palmer Station and the Antarctic Peninsula area, are in good condition without stains or signs of fungi. • An agriculture stamp indicating the wood is free of contamination will help expedite clearance through Customs. 61

Wood Packing Material, United States • The following regulations have been put in place by the U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) on all wood packing materials entering the United States. Please be aware that wood packaging materials used to ship cargo to Antarctic field sites must comply with these regulations in order to be returned to the United States, as repackaging material or recycled material — all material in retrograde movement from Antarctica. 62

Wood Packing Material, United States • Wooden packaging material (WPM) like pallets, crates & boxes entering the U. S. must be treated or fumigated with methyl bromide and marked with the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) logo. Effective 16 September 2005, the same requirements apply to regulate WPM arriving in the U. S. Also refer to WPM guidelines published by USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS): http: //www. aphis. usda. gov/ 63

Wood Packing Material, United States • Wood packing materials destined for the U. S. must comply with this statement: • The wood packaging materials used in this shipment are in compliance with the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures, Publication 15, March 2002 (ISPM 15). The material used consists of processed wood material and solid sawn wood subjected to the approved heat treatment. Those packages that use heat treated wood have been certified as being compliant with ISPM 15 and the Internal National Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) and are so marked by an approved and inspected agent (Number US-4522) of the American Lumber Standard Committee. 64

Packing Containers • As often as possible, pack reusable containers with hinged, clamped, or screw-fastened tops — most especially if items are to be returned or reused in retrograde. • Containers should be made to withstand hard contact, sharp corners, crushing weight, and shock sustained by rough handling in transit; in the warehouse, aboard ship, and on Page station. Use sturdy material, well fastened, securely braced and reinforced. All boxes and containers should be banded with steel straps or Cordstrap. The number of straps depends on the size of the box, but at least two straps per box. 65

Packing Containers • Some plastic containers may not be suitable for use in extreme cold where they become brittle. Plastic containers may crack or break. Remember when choosing a container, and the environmental conditions which may be found. 66

Conditions • Insulated containers may be appropriate if they will eventually be used for retrograde material that must be kept frozen (KF) or keep chilled (KC). • Material is often exposed to excessive moisture and temperature extremes during storage and transportation. Also, it is common for condensation to build up inside boxes during shipment • Primary shipment to Antarctica is on-board ocean going vessels, subject to ocean conditions in transit, which can not be predicted. Therefore, it is necessary to pack for extremely rough handling and various weather conditions. 67

Weight & Volume • Crates weighing over 100 pounds must be palletized for safer cargo handling. Also consider the total volume of the box, and do not pack anything over 125 cubic feet (5 x 5 x 5 feet). Crates larger and heavier may restrict handling and cause materials to be delayed. • Extremely small boxes may also pose a problem. They are difficult to account for in a cargo cache, or the cargo hold of a ship. Avoid boxes smaller than 12 inches on a side. Many small boxes can be packed together and then shipped more readily. 68

Weight & Volume • Any air cargo longer than 125 inches (10 ½ feet, or 3. 2 m) must be sent via cargo carrier. Sometimes, mail or air cargo can be expedited on passenger aircraft. However, certain sizes can only be flown by cargo carriers. – longer then 125” (10 ½ feet, or 3. 2 m) – wider than 96” (8 ft. or 2. 4 m) – more than 64” (5 ¼ ft. or 1. 6 m) high 69

Marking and Labeling • Mark all boxes and crates in a distinctive and obvious manner. Use a stencil or permanent marker, bold and clear. Make sure the marking is impervious to water and weather. • Use consecutive numbers for more than one box in the same shipment; i. e. “Box 1 of 4. ” A detailed packing list should be created and attached to the outside of each box. • Be sure to describe the contents, especially any hazardous materials, list the event number. 70

Marking and Labeling • Details of the contents must include manufacturer, manufacturer’s part number, description, model and serial numbers for any valuable or durable equipment, country of origin if outside the U. S. and the U. S. dollar amount (US$) for all items. • Please be as specific as possible to prevent any problems. This information is required for each item you are shipping within each box/crate/pallet etc to be used by USAP personnel to create the proforma invoice required by U. S. Customs for export. • In the event that information is missing from the packing list, cargo may be delayed until the information is obtained 71

Marking and Labeling Required Documentation 1. Provide the Manager, Port Operations, with a copy of shipping. 2. You may send a Bill of Lading or an Air Waybill. 3. Make sure that the information is clear and concise. 4. You must indicate the delivering carrier, shipment number, piece count, date departed, scheduled delivery date, and total weight. 5. In addition, forward copies of the detailed packing lists which outline the contents in each package, which were attached to each box. 72

Marking and Labeling Special Handling 1. Some items will require specific treatment. 2. We must prevent some contents from freezing, and other contents which must not thaw. 3. Boxes will need to be kept upright, or protected from energy sources. 4. Special handling instructions must be marked outside the box. 73

Marking and Labeling Special Handling 1. Appropriate and bold labels or stencils should provide cargo handlers with instructions. 2. Common examples include the following: a. b. c. d. e. f. Fragile Do Not Drop Do Not X-Ray Keep Dry Keep Frozen Do Not Freeze 74

CARGO PACKAGING – CARGO SHIPS PROCEDURE 75

Cargo Packaging – Cargo Ships Procedure • The two principle challenges facing shippers are to satisfy both the customer and the shipper. 1. The customer requires a secure and reliable method of carriage. 2. The shipper requires that the space on his vessel of carriage is fully utilized in order to receive maximum freight. 76

Cargo Packaging – Cargo Ships Procedure • To achieve compatibility between cargo owners and the owners of the means of transport requires knowledge of the cargo-handling procedures in transport. • These procedures are described with reference to major characteristics of commodities and cargoes. • The methods of cargo carriage and packaging must be considered at the very outset of the shipping process. 77

Cargo Packaging – Cargo Ships Procedure • The size and quality of packages must be compatible with the transport technology contemplated, e. g. utilisation of containers depends on positioning packages to avoid empty space. • Hence, the considered transformation of commodity to cargo carries significant commercial, operational and economic impact. • Space with a container is not just loss of revenue but poses the danger of goods shifting during transit and so sustaining damage. 78

Cargo Packaging – Cargo Ships Procedure • Basically, packaging performs the following three basic functions, which we may call the three P’s of packaging, namely: 1. protection, 2. preservation and 3. presentation. • A package should protect and preserve the contents during storage and transit from the harvesting (for agricultural products), manufacturing (for manufactured goods) or mining (for ore or other mineral products), to the consuming centre. 79

Cargo Packaging – Cargo Ships Procedure • Protection is required not only against loss, damage and pilferage, but also, depending on the nature of the contents, against moisture entering or leaving the package, high or low temperatures, light, gases, insect infestation, contamination and other natural hazards. • The dry cargoes embrace raw materials, semifinished or finished goods. • They do not require the same containment as gases and liquids. 80

Cargo Packaging – Cargo Ships Procedure • The number of dry cargo types is almost endless. • The type of commodity, the level of finishing, and the transport method will determine the need for packaging and storage requirements. • Detailed recommendations of methods of cargo carriage, cargo handling, and transport requirements for various types of goods are found in many literatures. 81

Cargo Packaging – Cargo Ships Procedure • Storage requirements will tend to determine the choice of transport method. • Some commodities have to be kept frozen (e. g. meat) while others need refrigeration (e. g. fruit). • Flowers need to reach the customers quickly, while other cargoes need adequate ventilation to avoid combustion (e. g. grain, coal and copra). 82

Cargo Packaging – Cargo Ships Procedure • The shipper must choose a transport method which secures proper storage and speed of delivery. • There are several international conventions as well as common practices shipowners will have to follow to secure proper handling of different cargoes onboard a ships. 83

PACKING A CONTAINER RECOMMENDED METHOD 84

Packing a container recommended method • Packing a container should always be done on a level plane either on the ground, on a rail car, or on a trailer. In the case of a trailer, care should be taken to ensure the trailer cannot tip whilst being packed especially if a forklift truck is being used. If necessary the trailer should be propped. Brakes should be securely applied and wheels choked. • Stowage should be planned before packing is commenced. This should make it possible to produce either a tight or a secured stow, in which the compatibility of all items of cargo and the nature i. e. Type and strength of any packages or packaging involved are taken into account. The possibility of cross-contamination by odour or dust as well as physical or chemical compatibility should be considered. 85

Packing a container recommended method • The planned load should not weight more than the payload of the container which is marked upon it. This ensures that the permitted maximum gross weight of the container on the CSC Safety Approval Plate (which includes the payload) will never be exceeded. • Notwithstanding the load limitations on a container mentioned above, any limitation along the projected route that may be dictated by regulations or other circumstances (such as lifting and handling equipment or road restrictions on height and weight) should be complied with. Such limit may be considerably less that the permitted gross weight already referred to. In case of doubt, the container operator should be consulted. 86

Packing a container recommended method • Stowage planning should take account of the fact that containers are generally designed assuming the load to be evenly distributed over the entire floor area. Where substantial deviations from uniform packing could occur, specialist advice should be sought. • When a heavy indivisible load is to be shipped in a container or vehicle, due regard should be given to the localised weight bearing capability of the container. If necessary, the weight should be spread over a larger area than the actual bearing surface of the load, for example, by use of timber bulks. 87

Packing a container recommended method • In such a case the method of securing the load should be planned before packing occurs and any necessary preparations made. • If the planned load of an open-topped or open -sided container is to project beyond the container overall dimensions, special arrangements should be made. 88

HOW TO SECURE VARIOUS COMMODITIES INSIDE A CONTAINER ? 89

Packing principles relating to cargo in containers • The principles below are applicable to cargo stowage in containers carried by sea, air, road or rail. This topic will be further discussed and illustrated in the relevant modules on the carriage of goods by sea, by air and by road and rail. • There a number of basic principles applicable to the stowage of ALL cargo into containers. • The maxim which summarises this set of principles is: safe container transport depends chiefly on a correct and immovable stow and an even weight distribution. • Either the container must be stowed tightly so that lateral and longitudinal movement of the cargo within it is impossible; or else the cargo must be effectively restrained. 90

Packing principles relating to cargo in containers • Tight stowage : This can be achieved by making the shape and the dimensions of the package an optimum module of the container or making the base of a unit load a module of the container. • Restraint It is always necessary to restrain the cargo for one or more of the following reasons: To prevent. collapse of the stow while packing, unpacking, or during transit (e. g. , rolls of linoleum on end); To stop any movement during transit of part-loads or of single heavy items (e. g. , large pieces of machinery) - the heavier the item the more damage it will do if allowed to move; and To prevent the "face" of the stow collapsing and leaning against the container doors to fall out when the doors are opened at the final destination or for customs inspection. 91

Packing principles relating to cargo in containers • Tight stowage : This can be achieved by making the shape and the dimensions of the package an optimum module of the container or making the base of a unit load a module of the container. • Restraint It is always necessary to restrain the cargo for one or more of the following reasons: To prevent. collapse of the stow while packing, unpacking, or during transit (e. g. , rolls of linoleum on end); To stop any movement during transit of part-loads or of single heavy items (e. g. , large pieces of machinery) - the heavier the item the more damage it will do if allowed to move; and To prevent the "face" of the stow collapsing and leaning against the container doors to fall out when the doors are opened at the final destination or for customs inspection. 92

Packing principles relating to cargo in containers • Methods of securing cargo The more common methods of securing cargo are: – Shoring - bars, struts and spars located in the cargo voids to keep the cargo pressed against the walls or other cargo. Lashing - ropes, wire, chains, strapping or netting secured to proper anchoring points and tensioned against the cargo. – Wedging : wooden distance pieces, pads of synthetic material, inflatable dunnage to fill voids in the cargo and keep it immobile against the container walls. Locking - cargo built up to give a three-dimensional brick wall effect. 93

Packing principles relating to cargo in containers • Aids to good securing There is no simple formula to follow when securing cargo. Each stow must be treated on its own merits - the type of cargo, the way it is stowed, the equipment available, or the permanent fittings in the container. But the following points should be borne in mind when applying restraint: Always use the built-in securing points which are provided. For obvious reasons comply with the safe loading limitation on the securing points. Any timber used - i. e. , dunnage or filler pieces - should be dry. It may also have to comply with certain quarantine regulations in force. 94

Packing principles relating to cargo in containers • Aids to good securing If nails have to be used to secure cargo to a wooden floor, they should only penetrate about two-thirds the thickness of the floor to achieve adequate grip without total penetration. Holes must not be drilled in walls or floor. Never use nails in a reefer container (a refrigerated container). Any shoring which presses against the container wall should have extra timber laid longitudinally between the wall and point of support to spread the weight over two or more side posts. Useful filler pieces for wedging or preventing rubbing, sometimes called chafe, are old tyres, paper pads softened by soaking (macerated) or, for light packages, rolled-up cardboard. Unless an identical stow is anticipated on the return journey (known as a closed circuit operation) it is best if, when the lashing equipment is chosen, it is considered re-usable. 95

Packing principles relating to cargo in containers • How to restrain certain types of cargo Top-heavy articles should be wedged, shored and lashed to prevent toppling. Heavy weights should be secured to stout ring-bolts (sited in the container floor and side walls) and/or be shored with timber. They should be chained or wired with bottle-screws (e. g. , 1/2 in chain; 11/4 inch bottle-screws; three ton “D” shackles are adequate for lashing cargo up to 18 tons in weight). Resilient loads can cause lashings to slacken - this may sometimes be overcome by introducing elasticity (e. g. rubber rope) into the lashing pattern. No securing of pallets is necessary (provided the load is properly secured to the pallet) if the distance between pallets and container walls is 4 in (100 mm) or less. Pallets must not be allowed any longitudinal movement. If it is necessary to secure them, stow the pallets against the container walls and wedge wood blocks between the pallets. It may be necessary to insert sheets of board between the pallet loads to protect them against chafing and prevent bags, cartons; etc. , interweaving and jamming the stowage. 96

Packing principles relating to cargo in containers • Stowage precautions In the majority of cases, there is a space (1" to 24") left between the face of the cargo and the container doors. It is important that the cargo does not collapse into this space. It can be prevented in a variety of ways, such as: a. b. c. Using suitably positioned lashing points with wire, rope, strapping, etc. , woven across Inserting a simple wooden gate for the wider gaps and heavier cargo Providing filler pieces i. e. , macerated (water-softened) paper pads, wood-wool pads made of fine shavings and used for packing, etc. , for narrower gaps and lighter cargoes (like cartons of biscuits). It is also important to ensure that the cargo does not fall out when the container doors are opened. This is particularly relevant to a container which has been completely packed (as with cartons or sacks). Although this can sometimes be achieved by interlocking tiers of packages, it is better to use the fixing points located in the door posts of general cargo container. Nylon strapping in polypropylene cord or wire (1/4" diameter or less) threaded through these points forms an effective barrier. 97

Packing principles relating to cargo in containers • Other stowage precautions to be taken are: Securing the goods in their packages and making the pack itself as full as possible so as to resist external pressures. Making packages sufficiently rigid to withstand the weight imposed upon them when stacked to a minimum height of 8 ft. Making sure, if more than one type of cargo is stowed in a container, that they are compatible and cannot cause contamination or become contaminated. Placing heavy items and liquids at the bottom, with light and dry items on the top. Within practical physical limitations of handling, the unit package should be as large as possible, since this can reduce costs by up to 20 percent and increase the efficiency in volume by up to 10 percent. 98

Packing principles relating to cargo in containers • Other stowage precautions to be taken are: Where relevant, stowing should be carried out in a sequence which will permit rapid checking and storage operations during and after unloading. Should the consignment include cargo subject to customs pre-entry procedures, customs examination would be made easier and unloading avoided if the cargo were stowed at the end of the container by the door. One should try to arrange for any unavoidable gap in the stowage to be along the centre line of the container and not at the sides. It is much easier and cheaper to restrain the shifting of cargo in this way. A lighted cigarette end can destroy the contents of a container and even endanger the ship. When stowing a container the rule should therefore be NO SMOKING. 99

Packing principles relating to cargo in containers • Load factors Heavy loads must be assessed according to their shape, dimension and weight. However, as a guide, the weight or loads should be distributed over the container floor by means of suitable bearers or dunnage as follows: (a) Width: distribution should be over the entire width of the container; (b) Length: each ton weight of cargo should be spread over at least two floor members, which run transversely under the container floor at 1 foot centres (e. g. , a 13 ton integral load would require to be distributed over 14 floor members i. e. , 14 foot run of container floor). The total load should be distributed as evenly as possible, but in certain circumstances the closed end half of the container can carry more than 65 per cent, or conversely the door end half more than 60 per cent, of the total load. 100

Packing a container recommended method • When heavy cargo is to be shipped, if it is impracticable to place the centre of gravity in or near the centre of the horizontal plane of the container, or if it will be above the half height, the container operator should be consulted. • When planning the packing of a container, consideration should be given to potential problems which may be created for those who will unpack it. 101

Packing and Securing • It is essential to make the cargo in a container or vehicle secure against any reasonably foreseeable movement. At the same time, the method of securing the cargo should not itself cause damage or deterioration either to the cargo or the container or vehicle. • Where goods of regular shape and size are concerned, a tight stow from wall to wall should be sought. However, in many instances some void spaces will occur. These can be tolerated if security is obtained by the frictional effect between adjacent packages. If there is an insufficient frictional effect, or if the spaces between the packages are tool large, then the stow should be completed by using dunnage, folded cardboard, air bags or other suitable means. 102

Packing and Securing • If airbags are used, the manufacturer's instructions as to filling pressure should be scrupulously observed. Allowance should be made for the possibility of a considerable rise in the internal temperature of the container above the temperature at the time of packing which might cause the bags to expand burst, thereby making them ineffectual as a means of securing the cargo. Air bags should be not be used as a means of filing space at the doorway unless precautions are taken to ensure that they cannot cause the door to open violently when the locking bars are released. • The cargo weight should be evenly distributed over the floor of a container or vehicle. 103

Packing and Securing • The cargo weight should be evenly distributed over the floor of a container or vehicle. • Where cargo items of a varying weight are to be packed into a container or vehicle or where a container or vehicle will not be full (either because of insufficient cargo or because the maximum weight allowed will be reached before the container or vehicle is full), the stow should be so arranged and secured that the approximate centre of the weight of the cargo is close to the midlength of the container or vehicle. In no case should more than 60 per cent of the load be concentrated in less than half of the length of a container measured from one end. • Heavy goods should not be placed on top of lighter goods and liquids should not be placed on top of solids. The centre of gravity should be below the half height of a container. 104

Packing and Securing • In order to avoid cargo damage from moisture, wet cargoes, moisture inherent cargoes or cargoes liable to leak should not be packed with goods susceptible to damage by moisture. Wet dunnage, pallets or packaging should not be used. In certain cases, damage to equipment and cargo can be prevented by the use of protective material such as polythene sheeting. • Damaged packages should not be packed into container or vehicle unless precautions have been taken against harm from spillage or leakage. 105

Packing and Securing • Permanent securing equipment incorporated in the design of a container should be used wherever necessary to prevent cargo movement. • Where open-sided vehicles are concerned, particular care should be taken to secure cargo the forces likely to arise from the rolling of the ship. In order words, a check should be made to ensure that all side battens are fitted or other adequate precautions are taken. • Special packing instructions shown on packages or otherwise available, should be followed. e. g. : – Goods marked "protect from frost" should be packed away from the walls of a container; – Goods marked "this way up" should be packed accordingly. 106

On completion of packing a container • During the final stages of packing a container, care should be taken, so far as practicable, to build a secure face of the cargo so as to prevent "fall out" when the doors are opened. Where there is any doubt as to the security of the cargo, further steps should be taken to ensure security by weaving strapping between securing points or placing timber between the rear posts. Two factors should be borne in mind: that a container on a trailer usually inclines towards the door; • that a cargo may move against the doors due to jolts etc. during the transit. If a container is destined for a country with wood treatment quarantine regulations, care should be taken that all wood in the container, packaging and cargo complies with the regulations. It is useful to place a copy of the wood treatment certificate in a conspicuous place in the container. 107

On completion of packing a container • After closing the doors, ensure that all closures are properly engaged and secure. Usually a seal should be applied. Care should be taken that sealing procedures are carried out properly and transport documents/receipts bear the correct seal number before the container leaves the premise. • When a container, or its contents, has been fumigated and is to be shipped under fumigation, then a warning label should be placed on the outside of the doors so that it is clearly visible to any person operating the doors. • The label should state the method of fumigation employed and the date and time on which it took place. As containers offered for shipment under fumigation may require special precautions, they should only be accepted with the agreement of the carrier and they should be identified to him prior to loading. 108

GUIDELINES ON THE CHOICE OF PACKAGING 109

Guidelines on the choice of packaging • Packaging perform the following three basic functions, which we may call the three P’s of packaging, namely: protection, preservation and presentation. • Some broad guidelines to be followed in the choice of packaging technique include the considerations which follow. • Goods should be well stowed within the package, evenly distributed and properly secured. Items completely filling the case or carton contribute to the strength of the whole package. Items which do not completely fill the package must be cushioned against shock or vibration. 110

Guidelines on the choice of packaging • There must be adequate internal bracing or securing using battens (bars of wood) or dunnage (mats, wood shavings, etc. ). Where the consignment consists of a number of small packages, it is preferable to consolidate them into one load by strapping and securing them to a wooden pallet base (a portable platform for storing loads). • The assembly of cargo into the largest practical unit consistent with the handling, weight and dimension requirements reduces the danger of theft to a minimum. There is also the advantage of reduced handling stresses, as larger units require the use of mechanical handling equipment rather than crude manual techniques. 111

Guidelines on the choice of packaging • Pallet packing is quite suitable for goods carried in containers although they may also be carried by conventional methods. In this case, however, there is the risk of breakage during transfer, or on forwarding and handling operations. In selecting the appropriate type of package, account should be taken of the probability of cargo being "overstowed" by other packages in warehouses and cargo holds. • Appropriate strapping and banding techniques should be used for all packages. The regulations of the destination country as well as those of any transit countries should be checked in order to ensure that they do not prohibit certain types of packing material, particularly material which is harmful to the environment. The reuse of second-hand cartons or cases should be avoided as they are more liable to collapse or and may invite pilferage (stealing in small quantities) if the contents become exposed. 112

Guidelines on the choice of packaging • To improve the handling of bigger volumes of cargo, the design of the package should match the dimensions of the product so as to save packaging and freight costs. From the shipper's point of view, it is desirable that the following considerations should be borne in mind in order to minimize the cost of freight: – in respect of measurement of the cargo, the package should be of minimum dimension; – there should be optimum utilization of space within the package; and – goods attracting different freight rates should not be packed together in one package, in case the carrier charges freight for the whole package at the rate applicable to the highest-rated commodity. 113

Guidelines on the choice of packaging • It is essential that waterproof wrapping for the contents and waterproof lining for packages should be provided, particularly when the packages are likely to remain in an unprotected area, such as the customs area. • Over-packaging in the name of protective packaging should be avoided, in order to make optimum use of the carrying capacity. This is particularly important in air transport where packages are consolidated into pallets, igloos or containers. • Powdered or granular material should be packed preferably in flexible multiwall bags which are adapted to the requirements of the material, taking into account its chemical and physical characteristics. 114

Guidelines on the choice of packaging • In the case of pressed bales (canvas packages of merchandise), it is advisable to use an inner wrap of waterproof paper below an outer or primary cover of fiberboard material, over which heavy jute or a similar cover can be provided before strapping. • In designing or choosing a suitable package, it may be useful to consult, wherever possible, the consignee and obtain reports from his end about the packaging of specific products moving on specific routes. It would also be advisable to ascertain from consignees to what extent handling gear, port equipment, etc. , are available at the port of destination, what inland transportation facilities are available and if the goods have to be moved to inland centres. • In export packing, consideration should be given to the "presentation" aspect of the package: the design; colour, embellishment of the packages, which could produce a favourable reaction in the export market and improve the competitiveness of the product. 115

Information required for packaging • The type of packaging required depends on the: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Nature and type of goods Volume Weight Number of packages Types of packages Mode of transport Final destination 116