Ch 7 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches 1

Behavioral Approaches to Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills, that occurs through experience. There are several major approaches to learning. Behaviorism: Behavior is explained by observable experiences, not mental processes – Mental Processes: The observable thoughts, feelings, and motives that we experience – Associative Learning: Consists of learning that two events are connected or associated. 2

Cognitive Approaches to Learning 1. 2. 3. 4. Psychology began to be more cognitive in the last part of the twentieth century. There are many cognitive approaches to learning but we are focusing on four approaches : social cognitive, cognitive information processing, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist. Social cognitive approaches emphasize how behavior, environment, and person (cognitive factors) interact to influence learning. Information processing: focuses on how children process information through attention, memory, thinking and other cognitive processes. cognitive constructivist emphasizes the child’s cognitive construction of knowledge and understanding. Social constructivist approach focuses on collaboration with others to produce knowledge and

Behavioral approaches to Learning Classical conditioning Operant Conditioning 4

Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. 5

Classical conditioning (Cont’d) Some stimuli can elicit a reflexive response. The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response (UCR) are unconditioned or innate. In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR) similar to that produced by the UCS. 6

Pavlov’s Early Work meat powder (UCS)=Salivation to meat (UCR) Pairing meat with bell (CS) causes salivation to bell alone (CR) 7

Classical Conditioning Principles Generalization : The tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to produce a similar response. Discrimination: The organism responds to certain stimuli but not others. Extinction: The weakening of the conditioned response (CR) in the absence of the unconditioned response (UCS). 8

Systematic Desensitization q Systematic Desensitization: Reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive visualizations of increasingly anxietyproducing situations. 9

Learning Activity Mirna does poorly on a math test. This makes her feel anxious. From that point on, she always becomes anxious when taking a math test. As the school year progresses, she begins experiencing anxiety when she has tests in other subject areas as well. Q. 1: Q. 2: Q. 3: Q. 4: Identify the US in the example above. Identify the UR in the example above. Identify the CS in the example above. Identify the CR in the example above 10

Learning Activity Mirna does poorly on a math test. This makes her feel anxious. From that point on, she always becomes anxious when taking a math test. As the school year progresses, she begins experiencing anxiety when she has tests in other subject areas as well. Q: Why would Mirna begin to experience anxiety in response to tests in content areas other than math? 11

Classical Conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur. Thorndike’s Law of Effect Behavior Positive outcome Behavior strengthened Behavior Negative outcome Behavior weakened 12

Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur. Operant conditioning is at the heart of B. F. Skinner’s (1938) behavioral view. Consequences __ rewards and punishments____ are contingent on the organisms behavior.

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning (Cont’d) Organisms make responses that have consequences – The consequences serve to increase or decrease the likelihood of making that response again. – The response can be associated with cues in the environment (these cues set the occasion for the response) E. g. , we put coins in a machine to obtain food But we refrain when an “Out of Order” sign is placed on the machine

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Punishment Extinction

Operant Conditioning )Cont’d) q In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue and does not elicit the response. q Operant responses are voluntary. q In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in classical conditioning, the UCS elicits the reflexive response. 16

Operant Conditioning Principles Generalization: Giving the same response to similar stimuli. Discrimination: Differentiating among stimuli or environmental events. Extinction: Previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases. 17

Classical conditioning Generalization is the tendency of a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus to produce a response similar to the conditioned response. Discrimination means responding to certain stimuli but not others Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases Operant conditioning Generalization means giving the same response to similar stimuli. Discrimination involves differentiating among stimuli or environmental events Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory into Practice • • • Ali frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Danny often scolds Ali for his behavior. However, Ali’s classmates laugh when Ali makes remarks. The scolding rarely has any impact. Ali continues with his antics. Q. 1: What is Mr. Danny attempting to do when he scolds Ali ? Q. 2: Why does Ali continue his antics in spite of being scolded? Q. 3: What are three strategies Mr. Danny could try to keep Ali more on task? 19

Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-Ratio: Reinforce after a set number of appropriate responses Variable-Ratio: Reinforce after an average but unpredictable number of appropriate responses Fixed-Interval: Reinforce appropriate response after a fixed amount of time Variable-Interval: Reinforce appropriate response after a variable amount of time 20

Applied Behavior Analysis is applying principles of operant conditioning to change human behavior. ü Choose effective reinforces ü Make reinforces contingent and timely ü Select the best reinforcement schedule ü Consider contracting ü Use prompts and shaping ü Use negative reinforcement effectively

Reinforcement: The Premack principle states that a highprobability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low-probability activity. “Eat your dinner and you can go out to play. ” Guidelines for the Classroom: • Initial learning is better with continuous reinforcement. • Students on fixed schedules show less persistence, faster response extinction. • Students show greatest persistence on variableinterval schedule. 22

Differential Reinforcement Strategies: Prompts and Shaping Prompts: Added stimuli that are given just before the likelihood that the behavior will occur. 1. Use to initiate behavior. 2. Once desired behavior is consistent, remove prompts. q Shaping: Involves teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior. 1. First, reward any response. 2. Next, reward responses that resemble the desired behavior. 3. Finally, reward only target behavior. q 23

Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors Use differential reinforcement by reinforcing more appropriate behavior. Withdraw positive reinforcement (extinction) from a child’s inappropriate behavior. Remove desirable stimuli through “timeout” and “response cost. ” Present aversive stimuli (punishment). 24

Debate Should teachers use tangible reinforcers for good behavior? 25

Reflection & Observation Reflection: In your educational experience, what types of incentives did teachers use? How effective was their use? Why were they effective or ineffective? 26

Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Social, cognitive, and behavioral factors play important roles in learning. Self-efficacy: The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes. Observational learning occurs when a person observes and imitates someone else’s behavior. 27

Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism B Behavior P/C Personal and cognitive factors E Environment

Observational Learning Attention: Students must attend to what the model is doing or saying before imitating a model’s action. Retention: Students must code the information and keep it in memory so that they retrieve it. Production: Students must be able to reproduce the model’s behavior. Some children might attend and code in memory but because of limitations in their motor ability not be able to reproduce the model’s behavior. Motivation: Students must be motivated to imitate the modeled behavior 29

Bandura’s Contemporary Model of Observational Learning Attention Students are more likely to be attentive to high-status models (teachers). Production Poor motor ability inhibits reproduction of the model’s behavior. Help improve skills. Retention Students retention will be improved when teachers give logical and clear demonstrations Motivation When given a reinforcement, modeling increases. 30

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory into Practice • Mohamad frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Yousef often scolds Mohamad for his behavior. However, Mohamad ’s classmates laugh when Mohamad makes remarks. The scolding rarely has any impact. Mohamad continues with his antics. After several days of this, other boys in the class begin to get out of their seats and make humorous remarks as well. Q. 1: Why do the other boys begin to misbehave? Explain. Q. 2: What does this say about Mohamad ? 31

Classroom Use of Observational Learning Demonstrate and teach new behaviors Decide what type of model you will be Use peers as effective models Use mentors as models Consider the models children observe in the media 32

Self-Regulatory Learning Self-regulation involves the ability to self-regulate by monitoring your own progress, setting goals that are proximal, specific, and challenging, and managing time more effectively. These goals might be academic such as improving comprehension while reading, becoming more organized writer, learning how to do multiplications or they might be socioemotional such as controlling one’s anger, getting along better with peers. 33

A Model of Self-Regulatory Learning Self-Evaluation and Monitoring Goal Setting and Strategic Planning Monitoring Outcomes and Refining Strategies Putting a Plan into Action and Monitoring it 34

Self-efficacy is our belief that we can master a situation and produce positive outcomes. Self-efficacy influences the choice of behaviors we undertake, our persistence in those activities, and our attitude as we approach these behaviors.