Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis AP Biology Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is

Cellular Respiration & Photosynthesis AP Biology

Photosynthesis • Photosynthesis is the process of converting energy from sunlight into energy in chemical bonds: • Autotrophs are able to make their own food (glucose) – Ex: Plants, mosses, some protists, kelp, algae, cyanobacteria

• The process of photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast an organelle in autotrophs. • Chloroplasts have – sac structures called thylakoids. (A stack of thylakoids is called a granum (grana)) – fluid where sugars are made called stroma • The light reactions of photosynthesis occur on the thylakoid membranes- the dark reactions occur in the stroma.

Light • Light is unique in that it acts as a wave, but also acts as a particle (called a photon). • Plants utilize blue and red light, but reflect green light (which is why they appear green to us)

Pigments • A pigment molecule is able to absorb energy from light within a narrow range of wavelengths. The process of photosynthesis begins with light- absorbing pigments in plant cells. • Because of this, plants use a variety of pigments to absorb different wavelengths. These include: v. Chlorophyll a- absorbs violet and red (reflects green and yellow) v. Chlorophyll b- absorbs violet and red (reflects green and blue) v. The carotenoids- reflect red, orange and yellow *accessory pigment v. Xanthophylls- reflect yellow, brown, blue and purple*accessory pigment

Pigments in action • When light is absorbed into one of these pigments the energy from the light is incorporated into electrons within the atoms of that pigment molecule. • These energized/excited electrons are unstable and almost immediately re-emit the absorbed energy. • This energy bounces from one pigment molecule to another. • The process ends when the energy is absorbed by one of two special chlorophyll a molecules • Together with other pigments, these pigments form clusters called photosystems. Photosystem I and Photosystem II.

A Photosystem https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=m. Yb. MPwmwx 88

Photosynthesis • Photosynthesis is divided into two stages: 1. The light reactions- occur on the thylakoid membranes. Convert solar energy into chemical energy. The light reactions are divided into two processes- cyclic electron flow and noncyclic electron flow. 2. Calvin Cycle- occurs in the stroma and produces sugar. https: //www. youtu be. com/watch? v= w. JDlxp 17 r. Y 4

Light Reaction- Noncyclic Photophosphorylation • Photophosphorylation- the process of making ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) using energy from light. – Each photosystem is directly next to an electron transport chain located within the thylakoid membrane

Light Reaction- Noncyclic Photophosphorylation Noncyclic electron flow begins with photosystem II and follows these steps: 1. Photosystem II- electrons trapped are energized by light. 2. Primary electron acceptor- two energized electrons are passed to a molecule called a primary electron acceptor. 3. Electron transport chain- those electrons are passed from one protein to another in a chain. 4. Phosphorylation- as the electrons move “down” the chain they lose energy. The energy lost by the electrons is used to phosphorylate (add a phosphate to) ATP molecules 5. Photosystem I- The electron transport chain terminates with photosystem I. The electrons are again energized by sunlight and passed to another primary electron acceptor NADP to make NADPH.

Light Reaction- Noncyclic Photophosphorylation 6. NADPH- the electrons pass through a short electron transport chain. At the end of the chain, the electrons combine with NADP+ and H+ to form NADPH is a coenzyme. Since the electrons have a considerable amount of energy left, NADPH is an energy-rich molecule. 7. Photolysis- the electrons that originated in photosystem II have now been incorporated in NADPH. The loss of these two electrons from photosystem II is replaced when water is split into two electrons (2 H+ and 1/2 02) This is why water is needed and oxygen is produced from photosynthesis. In summary, photophosphorylation take the energy in light and electrons in water to make the energy rich molecules ATP and NADPH: Water + ADP + phosphate + NADP + light--> ATP + NADPH + oxygen

Light Reaction- Noncyclic Photophosphorylation

Cyclic photophosphorylation • Only 1 photosystem (P 700) allows excited electron to travel back to PS 1 • Only ATP is produced • Photolysis is absent; oxygen is not evolved • Predominant in bacteria

Light Reaction- Cyclic Photophosphorylation • A second photophosphorylation sequence occurs (in green plants also) when the electrons energized in photosystem I are “recycled” due to excess NADPH • Energized electrons join with protein carriers and generate ATP as they pass through another electron transport chain. The electrons then return to photosystem I (in a circle). • This process is necessary because the calvin-benson cycle requires more ATP than NADPH.

Light Independent Reaction. Calvin Benson Cycle Uses NADPH and ATP to convert carbon dioxide into sugar. Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplasts. Carbon fixation- CO 2 is attached to the protein Ru. BP- this reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme rubisco. This molecule and others cycle through 5 more times each time adding more CO 2 until glucose is complete. – H comes from NADPH – ATP is required – Glucose is stored as starch (and later converted to sucrose and distributed to stems leaves and roots)

Light Independent Reaction. Calvin Benson Cycle

Calvin Cycle • In summary, the calvin benson cycle takes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and energy from ATP and NADPH to create a glucose molecule. The energy in ATP and NADPH was captured from the sun through photophosphorylation (cyclic and noncyclic): • 6 CO 2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH --> 18 ADP + 12 NADP + 1 glucose • Each step of the calvin cycle is catalyzed by a specific enzyme.

Chemiosmotic Theory • Chemiosmotic theory describes the process by which ADP is phosphorylated to ATP: – 1. H+ ions (protons) accumulate inside thylakoids. The H+ ions come from photolysis during the light reactions. – 2. An electrical gradient is created across the thylakoid membrane as H+ is concentrated in the thylakoid space. – 3. As protons pass through the enzyme ATP synthase (embedded in the thylakoid membrane) the enzyme uses the energy to phosphorylate ATP from ADP.

Chemiosmotic Theory

Types of Photosynthesis • The plants that photosynthesize in the methods we’ve discussed so far are called C 3 plants. In these plants, on hot and dry days their stomata close to prevent water loss. – Oxygen builds up. – CO 2 levels decrease. – This causes rubisco to bind to oxygen instead of carbon dioxide

Photorespiration • Rubisco- the most abundant protein/enzyme on Earth. • In addition to being able to fix carbon dioxide, it can also fix oxygen if the oxygen levels are too high in a plant. • This leads to O 2 and Ru. BP reacting to produce waste products which are broken down by peroxisomes. • This is called photorespiration.

C 4 Plants • C 4 plants- have an alternative method of carbon fixation evolved to prevent excess water loss in hot, arid climates. • C 4 plants use PEP carboxylase, which has a higher affinity for CO 2, to fix CO 2 into a 4 carbon compound (oxaloacetic acid - OAA) and have a unique leaf anatomy.

C 4 Plants • C 4 plants have two types of photosynthetic cells. • 1. Bundle Sheath cells: are where the Calvin cycle occurs. • 2. Mesophyll cells-contain chloroplasts: where carbon dioxide is fixed. The bound CO 2 then moves into Bundle sheath cells through plasmodesmata. This keeps CO 2 levels high in Bundle sheath cells so that rubisco accepts it even when stomata are closed. • Examples: tropic grasses

CAM Plants • CAM- have an alternative method of carbon fixation have evolved to prevent excess water loss in hot, arid climates. • Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM- named for the type of plant in which it was discovered) has a pathway similar to C 4 plants by fixing CO 2 using PEP carboxylase and storing it into a 4 carbon sugar. They are unique because they reverse the opening of their stomata. They open at night and close them during the day (a shift in the diurnal behavior). Examples: Succulents and many cacti

Classwork • Generate a 3 circle Venn diagram to compare and contrast C 3, C 4 and CAM plants.

Cellular Respiration Ch 6 Bat book Ch 7 Babboon book • With your group of 3 and Bat book – Person 1: read 6. 1 p 90 and answer Q: How is your breathing related to your cellular respiration? – Person 2: read 6. 2 p 90 -91 and answer Q: Why are sweating and other body-cooling mechanisms necessary during vigorous exercise? – Person 3: read 6. 3 p 91 and answer Q: Walking at 3 mph, how far would you have to travel to “burn off” a slice of pizza (475 kcal)? How long would it take?

Cellular Respiration • In class activity: Biology Flower text • Group 1: read Overview and Figure 9. 1 and summarize (responsible for recording) • Group 2: read 9. 1 - Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP and summarize • Group 3: read 9. 1 - Redox Reactions- the Principle of Redox and summarize • Group 4: read 9. 1 - Redox Reactions. Oxidation of Organic Fuel and summarize • Group 5 x 2: read 9. 1 - Redox Reactions. Stepwise Energy Harvest and summarize

Cellular Respiration Ch 6 Bat book Ch 7 Babboon book • Respiration extracts stored energy from glucose to form ATP (from ADP and Pi) in a series of steps: – Chemical Equation: C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 6 H 2 O + 6 CO 2 + energy glucose + oxygen water + carbon dioxide + (ATP) • These steps couple energy-releasing (exergonic) chemical reactions to energy-storing (endergonic) ones. As hydrogen changes places as H+ and e- energy is transferred.

Hydrogen Transfer and Carriers • Oxidation-Reduction reaction (redox rxn)Movement of electrons from one molecule to another. – Oxidation/oxidized: the loss of electrons – Reduction/reduced: the addition of electrons In cellular respiration glucose loses e- while LEO the lion says GER oxygen gains e(all transported by H) – Examples of e- carriers • NAD+ and NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)

• Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria. The mitochondria has two membranes. The inner membrane is highly folded- the folds are called christae. The inside of the mitochondria is called the matrix and the space between the two membranes is called the intermembrane space. Respiration in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic respiration. It’s divided into three steps: 1. Glycolosis 2. Krebs Cycle 3. Oxidative Phosphorylation/Electron Transport Chain

Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis • Glycolysis is breaking down glucose into the molecule pyruvate. Nine intermediate products are formed and enzymes catalyze each step. • Glucose--> 2 pyruvate molecules • Glucose--> (net) 2 ATP + 2 NADH molecules • Releases < 25% of the energy in glucose- rest is stored in pyruvate molecules • No CO 2 is released / No O 2 is required • Takes place in the cytosol of the cell- outside the mitochondria

• VIDEO http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=3 GTj QTq. Uu. Ow • Go to page 97 Bat book and look at steps 1 -9 to understand where ATP, NADH and Pyruvate/Pyruvic acid are generated. • Summarize your findings in a picture/words/poetry/3 -D figure.

Prep Step • If oxygen is present- pyruvate enters the mitochondrion and is converted to Acetyl Co. A by coenzyme A. – Pyruvate is oxidized (NAD+ = NADH) – A carbon atom is released as CO 2 – Coenzyme A joins with the remaining 2 carbon atoms = Acetyl Co. A • Now ready for the Krebs Cycle

The Krebs Cycle/ Citric Acid Cycle • Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix. • Krebs cycle has 8 steps, each catalyzed by a specific enzyme. Each acetyl. Co. A molecule that enters produces 3 molecules of NADH. Another molecule is also reduced (gains electrons) FADH 2. Both of these molecules will donate their electrons in the 3 rd step. Carbon dioxide (that you will exhale) is produced as a biproduct of this step.

Oxidative Phosphorylation/ Electron Transport Chain • Oxidative Phosphorylation is the process of extracting ATP form NADH and FADH 2. • Occurs on the inner membrane of the mitochondria. • Electrons from NADH and FADH 2 pass along an electron transport chain from one protein to another, losing energy at each step • The last electron acceptor is oxygen. When it accepts the two electron, with two H+, it forms water.

Overview of Cellular Respiration • Glycolysis- makes 2 ATP • Krebs Cycle- makes 2 ATP • Electron Transport Chain- makes approx. 34 ATP • Total- 36 ATP made for each glucose molecule

Anaerobic Respiration • If oxygen’s not present there is no electron acceptor to accept the electrons at the end of the electron transport chain. If this occurs, NADH accumulates. This causes the krebs cycle and glycolosis to both stop. If this happens, the cells soon dies as no ATP is made. • Anaerobic respiration is a method cells use to escape this fate. The pathways in plants and animals, alcoholic and lactate fermentation, respectively, are slightly different but the objective is the same: to replenish NAD+ so that glycolysis can proceed again. • Anaerobic respiration occurs in the cytoplasm.

Anaerobic Respiration • Alcoholic Fermentation- Occurs in plants, fungi (such as yeast) and bacteria. Produces alcohol as a biproduct. This process is used to commercially produce alcoholic beverages. • Lactate Fermentation- occurs in animals. Pyruvate is converted to lactate (or lactic acid). This molecule causes muscle cramps after strenuous exercise.

Types of Phosphorylation • Substrate-level phosphorylation- direct phosphorylation of ADP to ATP from a coupled reaction. – Ex: glycolysis generates enough energy to add a P to ADP • Oxidative phosphorylation-ATP is generated from the oxidation of NADH and FADH 2, the ETC and ATP synthase. • Photophosphorylation- sunlight powered photolysis, ETC and ATP synthase