CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN Cartographic Design for GIS Geog 340

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CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN Cartographic Design for GIS (Geog. 340) Prof. Hugh Howard American River College

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN Cartographic Design for GIS (Geog. 340) Prof. Hugh Howard American River College

INTRODUCTION to CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN

INTRODUCTION to CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Is a partly mental, partly physical process in which maps are

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Is a partly mental, partly physical process in which maps are conceived and created (a verb) – The word design can also be a noun – A map can have a particular design, but design in this sense is only the end result of the design process

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Successful cartographic design – Results in maps that effectively communicate geographic

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Successful cartographic design – Results in maps that effectively communicate geographic information An ineffective communicator An effective communicator

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Cartographic design involves – Conceptualization of the map – Visualization of

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Cartographic design involves – Conceptualization of the map – Visualization of the map – Construction of the map • A partly mental, partly physical process

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Is driven by two goals – To create a map that

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Is driven by two goals – To create a map that appropriately serves the map user and the map’s intended use – To create a map that communicates efficiently, with simplicity and clarity

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Is directed by rules, guidelines, and conventions, but is relatively unstructured

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Is directed by rules, guidelines, and conventions, but is relatively unstructured – A single, optimal solution to a given mapping problem generally does not exist – Several acceptable solutions are possible – “Good design is simply the best solution among many, given a set of constraints imposed by the problem” (Dent 1999)

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Cartographic design is difficult! – If it were easy, expert systems

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Cartographic design is difficult! – If it were easy, expert systems would be used to design most maps – Expert systems are applications that make decisions based on rules and guidelines obtained from cartographic experts – Cartographic expert systems are currently limited to narrow aspects of cartographic design, and lack the ability to completely and consistently design top-quality maps

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Build a foundation of cartographic design skills by following the specific

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN • Build a foundation of cartographic design skills by following the specific rules and guidelines presented here – Consider alternative approaches once you master these rules and guidelines – Always be prepared to explain or defend your design decisions

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH • Map design research has guided many aspects of cartographic design

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH • Map design research has guided many aspects of cartographic design – Arthur Robinson (1952) sparked enthusiasm for this research with The Look of Maps

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH • In The Look of Maps, Robinson – Emphasized the importance

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH • In The Look of Maps, Robinson – Emphasized the importance of a map’s function over its form – Called for objective experimentation with regard to map design

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH • • Two schools of though emerged The “behaviorist” view –

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH • • Two schools of though emerged The “behaviorist” view – Focused on determining which mapping techniques are most effective, without regard for why they are effective • The “cognitive” view – Focused on why certain techniques are effective by applying knowledge structures to the ways that people perceive maps

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH • Results of eye-movement studies performed by George Jenks (1973) –

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH • Results of eye-movement studies performed by George Jenks (1973) – These studies remain as seminal examples of map design research

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH • Results of eye-movement studies performed by Sarah Fabrikant (2005) –

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH • Results of eye-movement studies performed by Sarah Fabrikant (2005) – Modern eye-movement study Circle sizes indicate the amount of time the map user’s eye was fixated at a given location

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH • Hans Meihoefer (1969) performed studies related to circle sizes –

MAP DESIGN RESEARCH • Hans Meihoefer (1969) performed studies related to circle sizes – Helped determine the minimum size differences required for map users to distinguish one circle from another

ART and GRAPHIC DESIGN

ART and GRAPHIC DESIGN

ART • The “art” of maps plays an important role in cartographic communication –

ART • The “art” of maps plays an important role in cartographic communication – The artistic aspect of maps is guided less by experimentation, and more by intuition – A map that embodies an artistic sensibility has a greater chance of communicating information than a “non-artistic” map

ART • The overt aspect of art – Maps can be beautiful • The

ART • The overt aspect of art – Maps can be beautiful • The less obvious aspect of art – There is an “art” to good map design – The cartographer synthesizes a wide variety of factors and produces a map – Human artistic abilities make this synthesis possible

GRAPHIC DESIGN • The link between cartographic design and graphic design is strong –

GRAPHIC DESIGN • The link between cartographic design and graphic design is strong – Graphic design emphasizes communication through graphical means, but is oriented toward advertisements and packaging, as opposed to maps – Graphic designers are responsible for a significant proportion of maps produced for print and on-line publication

GESTALT PRINCIPLES of PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION

GESTALT PRINCIPLES of PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Gestalt is a theory of visual perception developed in the 1920

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Gestalt is a theory of visual perception developed in the 1920 s – It attempts to describe how humans see the individual components of a graphical image, and organize them into a unified whole – These principles represent theoretical underpinning for many cartographic design rules, guidelines, and conventions

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Gestalt principles include the following – – – – Closure Common

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Gestalt principles include the following – – – – Closure Common Fate Continuity Figure-Ground Proximity Similarity Smallness/Area Symmetry

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Closure – Allows us to complete an image even when parts

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Closure – Allows us to complete an image even when parts are missing

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Common Fate – Allows us to group elements that share the

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Common Fate – Allows us to group elements that share the same moving direction

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Continuity – Allows us to move our eyes from one object

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Continuity – Allows us to move our eyes from one object to another

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Figure-Ground – Allows us to perceive certain objects as being closer

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Figure-Ground – Allows us to perceive certain objects as being closer to us (and more important)

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Proximity – Allows us to view objects that are close together

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Proximity – Allows us to view objects that are close together as a group

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Similarity – Allows us to group objects that are similar in

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Similarity – Allows us to group objects that are similar in size, shape, color, etc.

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Smallness or Area – Allows us to view the smaller of

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Smallness or Area – Allows us to view the smaller of overlapping areas as figures

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Symmetry – Allows us to view symmetrical objects as whole figures

GESTALT PRINCIPLES • Symmetry – Allows us to view symmetrical objects as whole figures (forming around the center)

THE IMAGE POOL

THE IMAGE POOL

IMAGE POOL • Is a mental inventory of designs and design possibilities – Taken

IMAGE POOL • Is a mental inventory of designs and design possibilities – Taken from maps, graphics, and images • • Build it by critically viewing art, graphic design, and maps Many examples of well-designed maps appear in the lectures and textbook – Use these to help build your image pool

THE DESIGN PROCESS

THE DESIGN PROCESS

THE DESIGN PROCESS • Map Communication Model – List of the basic steps involved

THE DESIGN PROCESS • Map Communication Model – List of the basic steps involved in communicating geographic information – Design process encompasses the entire model, but is most concentrated in Step 4 – I will focus on Step 4, assuming that Steps 1 -3 have been completed

THE DESIGN PROCESS • The design process can be distilled into a list of

THE DESIGN PROCESS • The design process can be distilled into a list of procedures – These procedures are iterative, and need to be repeated until the map is complete – These procedures will sometimes need to be executed simultaneously, or out of the prescribed order

THE DESIGN PROCESS 1. Determine how the map will be reproduced – Reproduction considerations,

THE DESIGN PROCESS 1. Determine how the map will be reproduced – Reproduction considerations, such as the printing method to be used, will impact almost every aspect of the design process, and need to be resolved first 2. Select a scale and map projection that are appropriate for the map’s theme – This will form the foundation of your map

THE DESIGN PROCESS 3. Determine the most appropriate methods for data classification and symbolization

THE DESIGN PROCESS 3. Determine the most appropriate methods for data classification and symbolization – This will allow you to craft your message 4. Select which map elements to employ, and decide how each will be implemented – You must also decide how to implement type

THE DESIGN PROCESS 5. Establish an Intellectual Hierarchy – A ranking of symbols and

THE DESIGN PROCESS 5. Establish an Intellectual Hierarchy – A ranking of symbols and map elements according to their relative importance – The following is a general hierarchy for thematic maps Most Important Least Important • • • Thematic symbols and type labels Title, subtitle, and legend Base information (boundaries, roads, etc. ) Scale and north arrow Data source and notes Frame and neat lines

THE DESIGN PROCESS 6. Create one or more sketch maps – A sketch map

THE DESIGN PROCESS 6. Create one or more sketch maps – A sketch map is a rough, generalized hand drawing that represents your developing design

THE DESIGN PROCESS 7. Construct the map – Place, modify, and arrange map elements

THE DESIGN PROCESS 7. Construct the map – Place, modify, and arrange map elements according to your sketch map, and in the order that was previously recommended Print rough drafts to evaluate and refine the evolving map

VISUAL HIERARCHY

VISUAL HIERARCHY

VISUAL HIERARCHY • Graphical representation of the intellectual hierarchy – Thematic symbols are graphically

VISUAL HIERARCHY • Graphical representation of the intellectual hierarchy – Thematic symbols are graphically emphasized and base information is deemphasized – More important map elements (title, legend, etc. ) are graphically emphasized, and less important elements (bar scale, data source, etc. ) are deemphasized

VISUAL HIERARCHY • An effective visual hierarchy – Attracts the map user’s eyes to

VISUAL HIERARCHY • An effective visual hierarchy – Attracts the map user’s eyes to the most important aspects of the map first, and to less important aspects later – Results in a map that clearly reflects the relative importance of symbols and map elements – Results in maps that are easier to interpret, and are more attractive

VISUAL HIERARCHY • Implemented by altering the visual weight of map features – The

VISUAL HIERARCHY • Implemented by altering the visual weight of map features – The visual weight refers to the relative amount of attention that things attract – Visual weight can be manipulated to emphasize or deemphasize features

VISUAL HIERARCHY Inverted (incorrect) Visual Hierarchy Based on an Inverted Intellectual Hierarchy • Frame

VISUAL HIERARCHY Inverted (incorrect) Visual Hierarchy Based on an Inverted Intellectual Hierarchy • Frame and neat lines • Data source and notes • Scale and north arrow • Base information • Title, subtitle, and legend • Thematic symbols and type

VISUAL HIERARCHY Correct Visual Hierarchy Based on a Correct Intellectual Hierarchy • Thematic symbols

VISUAL HIERARCHY Correct Visual Hierarchy Based on a Correct Intellectual Hierarchy • Thematic symbols and type • Title, subtitle, and legend • Base information • Scale and north arrow • Data source and notes • Frame and neat lines

CONTRAST

CONTRAST

CONTRAST • • Visual differences between map features that allow us to distinguish one

CONTRAST • • Visual differences between map features that allow us to distinguish one from another Contrast adds interest to a map by providing graphical variety – It can be used to differentiate features (qualitative) – Or to imply their relative importance or magnitude (quantitative)

CONTRAST • Can be achieved through manipulation of the visual variables – Qualitative Contrast

CONTRAST • Can be achieved through manipulation of the visual variables – Qualitative Contrast can be used to differentiate features Qualitative Visual Variables

CONTRAST • Can be achieved through manipulation of the visual variables (cont. ) –

CONTRAST • Can be achieved through manipulation of the visual variables (cont. ) – Quantitative Contrast can be used to imply relative importance or magnitude Quantitative Visual Variables

CONTRAST • • Map on the right represents appropriate contrast Map on the left

CONTRAST • • Map on the right represents appropriate contrast Map on the left lacks appropriate contrast in four respects – – Lightness and size of thematic symbols Size of lines (line width) Type size Difference between the mapped area and the background

CONTRAST Inappropriate Contrast Appropriate Contrast

CONTRAST Inappropriate Contrast Appropriate Contrast

FIGURE-GROUND

FIGURE-GROUND

FIGURE-GROUND • A special type of contrast – Has already been introduced… • A

FIGURE-GROUND • A special type of contrast – Has already been introduced… • A Gestalt principle of perceptual organization – Refers to methods of accentuating certain objects over others by making them appear closer to the map user

FIGURE-GROUND • Map design research has not produced guidelines for figure-ground that are guaranteed

FIGURE-GROUND • Map design research has not produced guidelines for figure-ground that are guaranteed to work in every situation – The following guidelines work well in most cases • Separate approaches – To accentuate points and/or lines – To accentuate areas

FIGURE-GROUND • To accentuate points and/or lines – Make the points or lines darker

FIGURE-GROUND • To accentuate points and/or lines – Make the points or lines darker than their surroundings Base information has been lightened through “screening”

FIGURE-GROUND • To accentuate areas – Make the area lighter than its surroundings The

FIGURE-GROUND • To accentuate areas – Make the area lighter than its surroundings The surrounding area has been darkened

FIGURE-GROUND • Land-Water Contrast – A special case of figure-ground accentuating a lighter area

FIGURE-GROUND • Land-Water Contrast – A special case of figure-ground accentuating a lighter area – The “ground” is water

FIGURE-GROUND • Making an area lighter than its surroundings is not always appropriate –

FIGURE-GROUND • Making an area lighter than its surroundings is not always appropriate – When the mapped area is dense with areal thematic symbols (esp. when color is limited to shades of gray) Areal thematic symbols provide enough contrast between the mapped area and its surroundings Gray background might be confused with thematic symbols

FIGURE-GROUND • Multiple layers of importance can be represented – Features can be assigned

FIGURE-GROUND • Multiple layers of importance can be represented – Features can be assigned relative importance, based on relative proximity to the map user Circles act as figures in relation to countries (which act as ground) Countries, while subordinate to circles, act as figures in relation to water (which acts as ground) Countries appear further away than circles, yet closer than water

FIGURE-GROUND • Alternative methods of establishing figure-ground that accentuates areas – Imposition on a

FIGURE-GROUND • Alternative methods of establishing figure-ground that accentuates areas – Imposition on a graticule – Vignette

BALANCE

BALANCE

BALANCE • • The organization of map elements and available space, resulting in visual

BALANCE • • The organization of map elements and available space, resulting in visual harmony and equilibrium The map elements in a well-designed map tend to complement one another – Those in a poorly-designed map appear to compete for space, resulting in visual disharmony

BALANCE • Before attempting to achieve balance, the initial available space needs to be

BALANCE • Before attempting to achieve balance, the initial available space needs to be identified – Initial available space is the area the map will occupy—as defined by the frame line Frame Line

BALANCE • Identify the initial available space Initial available space is defined by the

BALANCE • Identify the initial available space Initial available space is defined by the frame line

BALANCE • Place larger map elements Mapped area is as large as possible Mapped

BALANCE • Place larger map elements Mapped area is as large as possible Mapped area is visually centered (horizontally and vertically) Title is placed at top center

BALANCE • Reevaluate available space and place Map elements that are intermediate in size,

BALANCE • Reevaluate available space and place Map elements that are intermediate in size, such as the legend Legend is visually centered within larger portion of available space

BALANCE • Reevaluate available space and place The smallest map elements, such as the

BALANCE • Reevaluate available space and place The smallest map elements, such as the data source and bar scale Map elements are visually centered within appropriate areas of available space Available space still remains

BALANCE • The addition of each map element alters the preexisting balance and available

BALANCE • The addition of each map element alters the preexisting balance and available space – Map elements typically need to be rearranged several times to achieve good balance – Certain individuals are intrinsically better at judging balance, but experience improves one’s skills

BALANCE • • Evaluating balance Does the map look left-heavy, rightheavy, top-heavy, bottom-heavy? –

BALANCE • • Evaluating balance Does the map look left-heavy, rightheavy, top-heavy, bottom-heavy? – Top-heavy designs are of particular concern • Do certain areas appear cramped or barren? – Are map elements competing for space? – Are too many “heavy” objects concentrated in one area?

BALANCE • Evaluating balance (cont. ) Poorly Balanced

BALANCE • Evaluating balance (cont. ) Poorly Balanced

BALANCE • Evaluating balance (cont. ) Well Balanced

BALANCE • Evaluating balance (cont. ) Well Balanced

BALANCE • Evaluating balance (cont. ) Do the best you can, given the constraints!

BALANCE • Evaluating balance (cont. ) Do the best you can, given the constraints!

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN Cartographic Design for GIS (Geog. 340) Prof. Hugh Howard American River College

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN Cartographic Design for GIS (Geog. 340) Prof. Hugh Howard American River College