Calcium Homeostasis Parathyroid Hormone Calcitonin and Vitamin D

Calcium Homeostasis: Parathyroid Hormone, Calcitonin and Vitamin D 3

Physiological Importance of Calcium • Ca is the most abundant mineral in the body. • Ca salts in bone provide structural integrity of the skeleton. • The amount of Ca is balanced among intake, storage, and excretion. • This balance is controlled by transfer of Ca among 3 organs: intestine, bone, kidneys. • Ca ions in extracellular and cellular fluids are essential to normal function of a host of biochemical processes – Neuoromuscular excitability and signal transduction – Blood coagulation – Hormonal secretion – Enzymatic regulation – Neuron excitation

Intake of Calcium • About 1000 mg of Ca is ingested per day. • About 200 mg of this is absorbed into the body. • Absorption occurs in the small intestine, and requires vitamin D.

Storage of Calcium • The primary site of storage is our bones (about 1000 grams). • Some calcium is stored within cells. • Bone is produced by osteoblast cells which produce collagen, which is then mineralized by calcium and phosphate (hydroxyapatite). • Bone is remineralized (broken down) by osteoclasts, which secrete acid, causing the release of calcium and phosphate into the bloodstream. • There is constant exchange of calcium between bone and blood.

Excretion of Calcium • The major site of Ca excretion in the body is the kidneys. • The rate of Ca loss and reabsorption at the kidney can be regulated. • Regulation of absorption, storage, and excretion of Ca results in maintenance of calcium homeostasis.

Regulation of [Calcium] • The important role that calcium plays in so many processes dictates that its concentration, both extracellularly and intracellularly, be maintained within a very narrow range. • This is achieved by an elaborate system of controls.

Regulation of Intracellular [Calcium] • Control of cellular Ca homeostasis is as carefully maintained in extracellular fluids • [Ca 2+]cyt is approximately 1/1000 th of extracellular concentration • Stored in mitochondria and ER • “pump-leak” transport systems control [Ca 2+]cyt – Calcium leaks into cytosolic compartment and is actively pumped into storage sites in organelles to shift it away from cytosolic pools.

Extracellular Calcium • When extracellular calcium falls below normal, the nervous system becomes progressively more excitable because of increase permeability of neuronal membranes to sodium. • Hyperexcitability causes tetanic contractions – Hypercalcemic tetany [Ca 2+]cyt

Extracellular Calcium • Three definable fractions of calcium in serum: – Ionized calcium ~50% – Protein-bound calcium ~40% • 90% bound to albumin • Remainder bound to globulins – Calcium complexed to serum constituents ~10% -- citrate and phosphate

Extracellular Calcium • Binding of calcium to albumin is p. H dependent. • Acute alkalosis increases calcium binding to protein and decreases ionized calcium. • Patients who develop acute respiratory alkalosis have increased neural excitability and are prone to seizures due to low ionized calcium in the extracellular fluid which results in increased permeability to sodium ions.

Calcium and Phosphorous • Ca is tightly regulated with P in the body. • P is an essential mineral necessary for ATP, c. AMP 2 nd messenger systems, and other roles.

Calcium Turnover

Calcium in Blood and Bone • Ca 2+ normally ranges from 8. 5 -10 mg/d. L in the plasma. • The active free ionized Ca 2+ is only about 48% 46% is bound to protein in a non-diffusible state while 6% is complexed to salt. • Only free, ionized Ca 2+ is biologically active.

Phosphate Turnover

Phosphorous in Blood and Bone • PO 4 normal plasma concentration is 3. 0 -4. 5 mg/d. L. 87% is diffusible, with 35% complexed to different ions and 52% ionized. • 13% is in a non-diffusible protein bound state. 85 -90% is found in bone. • The rest is in ATP, c. AMP, and proteins.

Calcium and Bone • 99% of Ca is found in the bone. Most is found in hydroxyapatite crystals. Very little Ca 2+ can be released from the bone– though it is the major reservoir of Ca 2+ in the body.

Structure of Bones Haversian canals within lamellae

Calcium Turnover in Bones • 80% of bone is mass consists of cortical bone – for example: dense concentric layers of appendicular skeleton (long bones). • 20% of bone mass consists of trabecular bone– bridges of bone spicules of the axial skeleton (skull, ribs, vertebrae, pelvis). • Trabecular bone has 5 X greater surface area, though comprises lesser mass. • Because of greater accessibility trabecular bone is more important to calcium turnover.

Bones • 99% of the Calcium in our bodies is found in our bones which serve as a reservoir for Ca 2+ storage. • 10% of total adult bone mass turns over each year during remodeling process • During growth rate of bone formation exceeds resporption and skeletal mass increases. • Linear growth occurs at epiphyseal plates. • Increase in width occurs at periosteum • Once adult bone mass is achieved equal rates of formation and resorption maintain bone mass until age of about 30 years when rate of resportion begins to exceed formation and bone mass slowly decreases.

Types of Bone Cells • There are 3 major types of bone cells: Osteoblasts are the differentiated bone forming cells and secrete bone matrix on which Ca 2+ and PO 43 - precipitate. • Osteocytes, the mature bone cells are enclosed in bone matrix. • Osteoclasts is a large multinucleated cell derived from monocytes whose function is to resorb bone. Inorganic bone is composed of hydroxyapatite and organic matrix is composed primarily of collagen.

Bone Formation • Active osteoblasts synthesize and extrude collagen. • Collagen fibrils form arrays of an organic matrix called the osetoid. • Calcium phosphate is deposited in the osteoid and becomes mineralized. • Mineralization is combination of Ca. PO 4, OH-, and H 2 CO 3– hydroxyapatite.

Mineralization • Requires adequate Calcium and phosphate. • Dependent on Vitamin D. • Alkaline phosphatase and osteocalcin play roles in bone formation. • Their plasma levels are indicators of osteoblast activity.

Canaliculi • Within each bone unit is a minute fluidcontaining channel called the canaliculi. • Canaliculi traverse the mineralized bone. • Interior osteocytes remain connected to surface cells via syncytial cell processes. • This process permits transfer of calcium from enormous surface area of the interior to extracellular fluid.

Bones cells

Control of Bone Formation and Resorption • Bone resorption of Ca 2+ by two mechanims: osteocytic osteolysis is a rapid and transient effect and osteoclasitc resorption which is slow and sustained. • Both are stimulated by PTH. Ca. PO 4 precipitates out of solution id its solubility is exceeded. The solubility is defined by the equilibrium equation: Ksp = [Ca 2+]3[PO 43 -]2. • In the absence of hormonal regulation plasma Ca 2+ is maintained at 6 -7 mg/d. L by this equilibrium.

Osteocytic Osteolysis • Transfer of calcium from canaliculi to extracellular fluid via activity of osteocytes. • Does not decrease bone mass. • Removes calcium from most recently formed crystals. • Happens quickly.

Bone Resorption • Does not merely extract calcium, it destroys entire matrix of bone and diminishes bone mass. • Cell responsible for resorption is the osteoclast.

Bone Remodeling • Endocrine signals to resting osteoblasts generate paracrine signals to osteoclasts and precursors. • Osteoclasts resorb and area of mineralized bone. • Local macrophages clean up debris. • Process reverses when osteoblasts and precursors are recruited to site and generate new matrix. • New matrix is minearilzed. • New bone replaces previously resorbed bone.

Osteoclasts and Ca 2+ Resorption

Calcium, Bones and Osteoporosis • The total bone mass of humans peaks at 25 -35 years of age. • Men have more bone mass than women. • A gradual decline occurs in both genders with aging, but women undergo an accelerated loss of bone due to increased resorption during perimenopause. • Bone resorption exceeds formation.

Calcium, Bones and Osteoporosis • Reduced bone density and mass: osteoporosis • Susceptibility to fracture. • Earlier in life for women than men but eventually both genders succumb. • Reduced risk: – – Calcium in the diet habitual exercise avoidance of smoking and alcohol intake avoid drinking carbonated soft drinks

Vertebrae of 40 - vs. 92 -year-old women Note the marked loss of trabeculae with preservation of cortex.

Hormonal Control of Bones

Hormonal Control of Ca 2+ • Three principal hormones regulate Ca 2+ and three organs that function in Ca 2+ homeostasis. • Parathyroid hormone (PTH), 1, 25 dihydroxy Vitamin D 3 (Vitamin D 3), and Calcitonin, regulate Ca 2+ resorption, reabsorption, absorption and excretion from the bone, kidney and intestine. In addition, many other hormones effect bone formation and resorption.

Vitamin D • Vitamin D, after its activation to the hormone 1, 25 -dihydroxy Vitamin D 3 is a principal regulator of Ca 2+. • Vitamin D increases Ca 2+ absorption from the intestine and Ca 2+ resorption from the bone.

Synthesis of Vitamin D • Humans acquire vitamin D from two sources. • Vitamin D is produced in the skin by ultraviolet radiation and ingested in the diet. • Vitamin D is not a classic hormone because it is not produce and secreted by an endocrine “gland. ” Nor is it a true “vitamin” since it can be synthesized de novo. • Vitamin D is a true hormone that acts on distant target cells to evoke responses after binding to high affinity receptors

Synthesis of Vitamin D • Vitamin D 3 synthesis occurs in keratinocytes in the skin. • 7 -dehydrocholesterol is photoconverted to previtamin D 3, then spontaneously converts to vitamin D 3. • Previtamin D 3 will become degraded by over exposure to UV light and thus is not overproduced. • Also 1, 25 -dihydroxy-D (the end product of vitamin D synthesis) feeds back to inhibit its production.

Synthesis of Vitamin D • PTH stimulates vitamin D synthesis. In the winter or if exposure to sunlight is limited (indoor jobs!), then dietary vitamin D is essential. • Vitamin D itself is inactive, it requires modification to the active metabolite, 1, 25 dihydroxy-D. • The first hydroxylation reaction takes place in the liver yielding 25 -hydroxy D. • Then 25 -hydroxy D is transported to the kidney where the second hydroxylation reaction takes place.

Synthesis of Vitamin D • The mitochondrial P 450 enzyme 1 ahydroxylase converts it to 1, 25 -dihydroxy-D, the most potent metabolite of Vitamin D. • The 1 a-hydroxylase enzyme is the point of regulation of D synthesis. • Feedback regulation by 1, 25 -dihydroxy D inhibits this enzyme. • PTH stimulates 1 a-hydroxylase and increases 1, 25 -dihydroxy D.

Synthesis of Vitamin D • 25 -OH-D 3 is also hydroxylated in the 24 position which inactivates it. • If excess 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D is produced, it can also by 24 -hydroxylated to remove it. • Phosphate inhibits 1 a-hydroxylase and decreased levels of PO 4 stimulate 1 ahydroxylase activity

Regulation of Vitamin D Metabolism • PTH increases 1 -hydroxylase activity, increasing production of active form. • This increases calcium absorption from the intestines, increases calcium release from bone, and decreases loss of calcium through the kidney. • As a result, PTH secretion decreases, decreasing 1 hydroxylase activity (negative feedback). • Low phosphate concentrations also increase 1 hydroxylase activity (vitamin D increases phosphate reabsorption from the urine).

Regulation of Vitamin D by PTH and Phosphate Levels PTH 1 -hydroxylase 25 -hydroxycholecalciferol 1, 25 dihydroxycholecalciferol increase Low phosphate resorption

Synthesis of Vitamin D

Vitamin D • Vitamin D is a lipid soluble hormone that binds to a typical nuclear receptor, analogous to steroid hormones. • Because it is lipid soluble, it travels in the blood bound to hydroxylated a-globulin. • There are many target genes for Vitamin D.

Vitamin D action • The main action of 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D is to stimulate absorption of Ca 2+ from the intestine. • 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D induces the production of calcium binding proteins which sequester Ca 2+, buffer high Ca 2+ concentrations that arise during initial absorption and allow Ca 2+ to be absorbed against a high Ca 2+ gradient

Vitamin D promotes intestinal calcium absorption • Vitamin D acts via steroid hormone like receptor to increase transcriptional and translational activity • One gene product is calcium-binding protein (Ca. BP) • Ca. BP facilitates calcium uptake by intestinal cells

Clinical correlate • Vitamin D-dependent rickets type II • Mutation in 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D receptor • Disorder characterized by impaired intestinal calcium absorption • Results in rickets or osteomalacia despite increased levels of 1, 25 -(OH)2 D in circulation

Vitamin D Actions on Bones • Another important target for 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D is the bone. • Osteoblasts, but not osteoclasts have vitamin D receptors. • 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D acts on osteoblasts which produce a paracrine signal that activates osteoclasts to resorb Ca++ from the bone matrix. • 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D also stimulates osteocytic osteolysis.

Vitamin D and Bones • Proper bone formation is stimulated by 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D. • In its absence, excess osteoid accumulates from lack of 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D repression of osteoblastic collagen synthesis. • Inadequate supply of vitamin D results in rickets, a disease of bone deformation

Parathyroid Hormone • PTH is synthesized and secreted by the parathyroid gland which lie posterior to the thyroid glands. • The blood supply to the parathyroid glands is from the thyroid arteries. • The Chief Cells in the parathyroid gland are the principal site of PTH synthesis. • It is THE MAJOR of Ca homeostasis in humans.

Parathyroid Glands

Synthesis of PTH • PTH is translated as a pre-prohormone. • Cleavage of leader and pro-sequences yield a biologically active peptide of 84 aa. • Cleavage of C-terminal end yields a biologically inactive peptide.

Regulation of PTH • The dominant regulator of PTH is plasma Ca 2+. • Secretion of PTH is inversely related to [Ca 2+]. • Maximum secretion of PTH occurs at plasma Ca 2+ below 3. 5 mg/d. L. • At Ca 2+ above 5. 5 mg/d. L, PTH secretion is maximally inhibited.

Calcium regulates PTH

Regulation of PTH • PTH secretion responds to small alterations in plasma Ca 2+ within seconds. • A unique calcium receptor within the parathyroid cell plasma membrane senses changes in the extracellular fluid concentration of Ca 2+. • This is a typical G-protein coupled receptor that activates phospholipase C and inhibits adenylate cyclase—result is increase in intracellular Ca 2+ via generation of inositol phosphates and decrease in c. AMP which prevents exocytosis of PTH from secretory granules.

Regulation of PTH • When Ca 2+ falls, c. AMP rises and PTH is secreted. • 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D inhibits PTH gene expression, providing another level of feedback control of PTH. • Despite close connection between Ca 2+ and PO 4, no direct control of PTH is exerted by phosphate levels.

Calcium regulates PTH secretion

PTH action • The overall action of PTH is to increase plasma Ca 2+ levels and decrease plasma phosphate levels. • PTH acts directly on the bones to stimulate Ca 2+ resorption and kidney to stimulate Ca 2+ reabsorption in the distal tubule of the kidney and to inhibit reabosorptioin of phosphate (thereby stimulating its excretion). • PTH also acts indirectly on intestine by stimulating 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D synthesis.

Calcium vs. PTH

Actions of PTH: Bone • PTH acts to increase degradation of bone (release of calcium). - causes osteoblasts to release cytokines, which stimulate osteoclast activity - stimulates bone stem cells to develop into osteoclasts - net result: increased release of calcium from bone - effects on bone are dependent upon presence of vitamin D

Actions of PTH: Kidney • PTH acts on the kidney to increase the reabsorption of calcium (decreased excretion). • Also get increased excretion of phosphate (other component of bone mineralization), and decreased excretion of hydrogen ions (more acidic environment favors dimineralization of bone) • And, get increased production of the active metabolite of vitamin D 3 (required for calcium absorption from the small intestine, bone demineralization). • NET RESULT: increased plasma calcium levels

Mechanism of Action of PTH • PTH binds to a G protein-coupled receptor. • Binding of PTH to its receptor activates 2 signaling pathways: - increased cyclic AMP - increased phospholipase C • Activation of PKA appears to be sufficient to decrease bone mineralization • Both PKA and PKC activity appear to be required for increased resorption of calcium by the kidneys

Regulation of PTH Secretion • PTH is released in response to changes in plasma calcium levels. - Low calcium results in high PTH release. - High calcium results in low PTH release. • PTH cells contain a receptor for calcium, coupled to a G protein. • Result of calcium binding: increased phospholipase C, decreased cyclic AMP. • Low calcium results in higher c. AMP, PTH release. • Also, vitamin D inhibits PTH release (negative feedback).

Calcium Receptor, c. AMP, and PTH Release Ca++ decreased c. AMP decreased PTH release

Calcium Receptor, c. AMP, and PTH Release increased c. AMP increased PTH release

PTH-Related Peptide • Has high degree of homology to PTH, but is not from the same gene. • Can activate the PTH receptor. • In certain cancer patients with high PTH-related peptide levels, this peptide causes hypercalcemia. • But, its normal physiological role is not clear. - mammary gland development/lactation? - kidney glomerular function? - growth and development?

Primary Hyperparathyroidism • Calcium homeostatic loss due to excessive PTH secretion • Due to excess PTH secreted from adenomatous or hyperplastic parathyroid tissue • Hypercalcemia results from combined effects of PTH-induced bone resorption, intestinal calcium absorption and renal tubular reabsorption • Pathophysiology related to both PTH excess and concomitant excessive production of 1, 25(OH)2 -D.

Hypercalcemia of Malignancy • Underlying cause is generally excessive bone resorption by one of three mechanisms • 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D synthesis by lymphomas • Local osteolytic hypercalcemia – 20% of all hypercalcemia of malignancy • Humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy – Over-expression of PTH-related protein (PTHr. P)

PTHr. P • Three forms of PTHr. P identified, all about twice the size of native PTH • Marked structural homology with PTH • PTHr. P and PTH bind to the same receptor • PTHr. P reproduce full spectrum of PTH activities

PTH receptor defect • Rare disease known as Jansen’s metaphyseal chondrodysplasia • Characterized by hypercalcemia, hypophosphotemia, short-limbed dwarfism • Due to activating mutation of PTH receptor • Rescue of PTH receptor knock-out with targeted expression of “Jansen’s

Hypoparathyroidism • Hypocalcemia occurs when there is inadequate response of the Vitamin DPTH axis to hypocalcemic stimuli • Hypocalcemia is often multifactorial • Hypocalcemia is invariably associated with hypoparathyroidism • Bihormonal—concomitant decrease in 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D

Hypoparathyroidism • PTH-deficient hypoparathyroidism – Reduced or absent synthesis of PTH – Often due to inadvertent removal of excessive parathyroid tissue during thyroid or parathyroid surgery • PTH-ineffective hypoparathyroidism – Synthesis of biologically inactive PTH

Pseudohypoparathyroidism • PTH-resistant hypoparathyroidism – Due to defect in PTH receptor-adenylate cyclase complex • Mutation in Gas subunit • Patients are also resistant to TSH, glucagon and gonadotropins

Calcium homeostasis

PTH, Calcium & Phosphate

Calcitonin • Calcitonin acts to decrease plasma Ca 2+ levels. • While PTH and vitamin D act to increase plasma Ca 2+-- only calcitonin causes a decrease in plasma Ca 2+. • Calcitonin is synthesized and secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland. • They are distinct from thyroid follicular cells by their large size, pale cytoplasm, and small secretory granules.

Calcitonin • The major stimulus of calcitonin secretion is a rise in plasma Ca 2+ levels • Calcitonin is a physiological antagonist to PTH with regard to Ca 2+ homeostasis

Calcitonin • The target cell for calcitonin is the osteoclast. • Calcitonin acts via increased c. AMP concentrations to inhibit osteoclast motility and cell shape and inactivates them. • The major effect of calcitonin administration is a rapid fall in Ca 2+ caused by inhibition of bone resorption.

Actions of Calcitonin • The major action of calcitonin is on bone metabolism. • Calcitonin inhibits activity of osteoclasts, resulting in decreased bone resorption (and decreased plasma Ca levels). calcitonin Decreased resorption (-) osteoclasts: destroy bone t release Ca

Calcitonin • Role of calcitonin in normal Ca 2+ control is not understood—may be more important in control of bone remodeling. • Used clinically in treatment of hypercalcelmia and in certain bone diseases in which sustained reduction of osteoclastic resorption is therapeutically advantageous. • Chronic excess of calcitonin does not produce hypocalcemia and removal of parafollicular cells does not cause hypercalcemia. PTH and Vitamin D 3 regulation dominate. • May be more important in regulating bone remodeling than in Ca 2+ homeostasis.

Regulation of Calcitonin Release • Calcitonin release is stimulated by increased circulating plasma calcium levels. • Calcitonin release is also caused by the gastrointestinal hormones gastrin and cholecystokinin (CCK), whose levels increase during digestion of food. Food (w/ Ca? ) gastrin, CCK increased calcitonin decreased bone resorption

What is the Role of Calcitonin in Humans? • Removal of the thyroid gland has no effect on plasma Ca levels! • Excessive calcitonin release does not affect bone metabolism! • Other mechanisms are more important in regulating calcium metabolism (i. e. , PTH and vitamin D).

Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP) • The calcitonin gene produces several products due to alternative splicing of the RNA. • CGRP is an alternative product of the calcitonin gene. • CGRP does NOT bind to the calcitonin receptor. • CGRP is expressed in thyroid, heart, lungs, GI tract, and nervous tissue. • It is believed to function as a neurotransmitter, not as a regulator of Ca.

Other Factors Influencing Bone and Calcium Metabolism • Estrogens and Androgens: both stimulate bone formation during childhood and puberty. • Estrogen inhibits PTH-stimulated bone resorption. • Estrogen increases calcitonin levels • Osteoblasts have estrogen receptors, respond to estrogen with bone growth. • Postmenopausal women (low estrogen) have an increased incidence of osteoporosis and bone fractures.

Findings of NIH Consensus Panel on Osteoporosis • The National Institutes of Health has concluded the following: • Adequate calcium and vitamin D intake are crucial to develop optimal peak bone mass and to preserve bone mass throughout life. • Factors contributing to low calcium intakes are restriction of dairy products, a generally low level of fruit and vegetable consumption, and a high intake of low calcium beverages such as sodas.

Influences of Growth Hormone • Normal GH levels are required for skeletal growth. • GH increases intestinal calcium absorption and renal phosphate resorption. • Insufficient GH prevents normal bone production. • Excessive GH results in bone abnormalities (acceleration of bone formation AND resorption).

Effects of Glucocorticoids • Normal levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) are necessary for skeletal growth. • Excess glucocorticoid levels decrease renal calcium reabsorption, interfere with intestinal calcium absorption, and stimulate PTH secretion. • High glucocorticoid levels also interfere with growth hormone production and action, and gonadal steroid production. • Net Result: rapid osteoporosis (bone loss).

Influence of Thyroid Hormones • Thyroid hormones are important in skeletal growth during infancy and childhood (direct effects on osteoblasts). • Hypothyroidism leads to decreased bone growth. • Hyperthyroidism can lead to increased bone loss, suppression of PTH, decreased vitamin D metabolism, decreased calcium absorption. Leads to osteoporosis.

Effects of Diet • Increasing dietary intake of Ca may prevent osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. • Excessive Na intake in diet can impair renal Ca reabsorption, resulting in lower blood Ca and increased PTH release. Normally, PTH results in increased absorption of Ca from the GI tract (via vitamin D). But in aging women, vitamin D production decreases, so Ca isn’t absorbed, and PTH instead causes increased bone loss. • High protein diet may cause loss of Ca from bone, due to acidic environment resulting from protein metabolism and decreased reabsorption at the kidney.

Nutrition and Calcium Heaney RP, Refferty K Am J. Clin Nutr 200174: 343 -7 – Excess calciuria associated with consumption of carbonated beverages is confined to caffeinated beverages. – Acidulant type (phosphoric vs. citric acid) has no acute effect. – The skeletal effects of carbonated beverage consumption are due primarily to milk displacement.

Nutrition and Calcium See Nutrition 2000 Vol 16 (7/8) in particular: • Calvo MS “Dietary considerations to prevent loss of bone and renal function” – “overall trend in food consumption in the US is to drink less milk and more carbonated soft drinks. ” – “High phosphorus intake relative to low calcium intake” – Changes in calcium homeostasis and PTH regulation that promote bone loss in children and post-menopausal women. – High sodium associated with fast-food consumption competes for renal reabsorption of calcium and PTH secretion.

Nutrition and Calcium See Nutrition 2000 Vol 16 (7/8) in particular: • Harland BF “Caffeine and Nutrition” – Caffeine is most popular drug consumed worldwide. – 75% comes from coffee – Deleterious effects associated with pregnancy and osteoporosis. • Low birth-rate and spontaneous abortion with excessive consumption • For every 6 oz cup of coffee consumed there was a net loss of 4. 6 mg of calcium • However, if you add milk to your coffee, you can replace the calcium that is lost.

Effects of soft drinks • Intake of carbonated beverages has been associated with increased excretion and loss of calcium • 25 years ago teenagers drank twice as much milk as soda pop. Today they drink more than twice as much soda pop as milk. • Another significant consideration is obesity and increased risk for diabetes. • For complete consideration of ill effects of soft drinks on health and environment see: – http: //www. saveharry. com/bythenumbers. html

Excessive sodium intake • Excessive intake of Na may cause renal hypercalciuria by impairing Ca reabsorption resulting in compensatory increase in PTH secretion. • Stimulation of intestinal Ca absorption by PTH -induced 1, 25 -(OH)2 -D production compensates for excessive Ca excretion • Post-menopausal women at greater risk for bone loss due to excessive Na intake due to impaired vitamin D synthesis which accompanies estrogen deficiency.

Effects of Exercise • Bone cells respond to pressure gradients in laying down bone. �Lack of weight-bearing exercise decreases bone formation, while increased exercise helps form bone. � Increased bone resorption during immobilization may result in hypercalcemia

Exercise and Calcium • Normal bone function requires weightbearing exercise • Total bed-rest causes bone loss and negative calcium balance • Major impediment to long-term space travel