CABI TOURISM TEXTS 4 th Edition Leisure Sport
CABI TOURISM TEXTS 4 th Edition Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning A. J. Veal COMPLEMENTARY TEACHING MATERIALS
Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th Edition CHAPTER 6 Public Policymaking Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Outline Introduction International dimensions Formal national constitutions Other institutions Models of decision-making Urban growth regimes and governance of the local state Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
International dimensions: Agreements etc. (Table 6. 1) • UN terminology: • Treaties – matters of some gravity , typically requiring ratification – e. g. Treaty of Rome, 1957 – origin of the EU • Agreements – less formal, narrower subject-matter, limited number of states, technical/administrative, not subject to ratification – e. g. General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – predecessor to WTO agreements • Conventions – instruments negotiated under the auspices of an international organization – e. g. Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 ( UNICEF) – World Heritage Convention, 1972 (UNESCO) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Agreements (cont’d) • Charters – particularly formal and solemn instruments, such as the constituent treaty of an international organization – e. g. UN Charter; Olympic Charter • Protocols – an instrument 'subsidiary to a treaty' or 'framework’ – the Kyoto Protocol, 1997 re UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992 • Declarations – often not binding – statement of aspirations – Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 1992 Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
International organizations – regulatory (Table 6. 2) IATA – International Air Transport Authority ITU – International Telecommunications Union WTO – World Trade Organization WHC – World Heritage Committee of UNESCO – UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Org. • CAS – Court of Arbitration for Sport • WADA – World Anti-Doping Agency • • Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
International organizations: advisory, specialist, etc. • • WLO – World Leisure Organisation IOC – International Olympic Committee IPC – International Paralympic Committee IFs – International Federations of (individual) Sport CGF – Commonwealth Games Federation UNWTO – UN World Tourism Organisation IUCN – International Union for the Conservation of Nature Conservation Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Supra-national bodies – e. g. European Union (Box 6. 1) • 27/28 member countries cede power over (commercial) competition policy to European Commission • Includes sport • Sporting leagues are ‘uncompetitive’ because of collusion: – player contracts – broadcasting rights Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Formal national constitutions unitary versus federal (Table 6. 3) • Unitary: – only one level of government (+ local government) – e. g. New Zealand, Ireland • Federal: – additional state/provincial level of government – e. g. USA, Australia • Leisure, sport, tourism often administered by all levels (see Table 6. 5) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Westminster model HEAD of STATE: ‘Ceremonial President’ or ‘Monarch’ PARLIAMENT Upper House (Senate/House of Lords*) ELECTED * Hereditary/ appointed in UK GOVERNMENT Prime Minister (Head of govt) + Ministers Lower House (House of Reps/ House of Commons
Presidential model: US style GOVERNMENT Executive President = Head of State and Head of Government Appointed Ministers ELECTED CONGRESS SENATE ELECTED HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
Presidential model: French style As in Westminster system, but: – elected executive President, with: – specific areas of responsibility, typically: • appointing prime minister • foreign affairs and defence Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Formal national constitutions – unitary versus federal (Table 6. 3) • Unitary: – only one level of government (+ local government); e. g. New Zealand, Ireland • Federal: – additional state/provincial level of government; e. g. USA, Australia • Leisure, sport, tourism often administered by all levels (see Table 6. 5) Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Forming governments • Political parties form around ideologies/group interests (see Ch. 2) • Members of parliament elected as members of political parties (+ independents) with manifesto/programme • Leader of party with majority forms government • Laws created by bills presented to, and approved by, both houses • Signed into law by head of state – bill becomes an Act Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Location of Leisure, Sport, Tourism LEISURE/CULTURE Broadcasting National arts/cultural institutions Provincial arts/cultural institutions Local arts/cultural institutions National parks Heritage conservation Regional parks Local parks Children’s play facilities Urban planning Beaches Community facilities/ programmes Unitary system National Local Federal system National State/ Local provincial
Location of Leisure, Sport, Tourism Unitary system National Local Sport National sport teams/athlete support Doping control Major sport stadia Sport development Community sport facilities/ programmes Federal system National State/ Local provincial Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Location of Leisure, Sport, Tourism Unitary system National Local Federal system National State/ Local provincial TOURISM International tourism promotion Air travel International travel Domestic tourism promotion Road/rail travel Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Other institutions 1: statutory bodies/authorities • Appointed/funded by gov’t (+ lotteries + licence fees) • ‘Arms-length’ principle • Used extensively in the arts, sport, public broadcasting: – – e. g. public broadcasting corporations (BBC, ABC, CBC) arts councils sports councils heritage commissions Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Other institutions 2: non-profit/voluntary sector • Non-profit trusts used in the arts, education • Non-profit sector in sport – governing bodies – sport clubs – International Olympic Committee Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Other institutions 3: public–private partnerships • Joint investment in a project by government (at any level) and private sector • Typically via a jointly owned company • See urban growth regimes Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Models of decision-making • • • Power-based models Rationality models Public choice Institutional approaches Personality, cognition and informationprocessing Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Power-based models • Elitism – power (formal and informal) is in the hand of elites – industry, money, class • Pluralism – power is shared by/competed for by many groups Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Political pluralism (Fig. 6. 2) GOVERNMENT ELECTED REPRESENTATIVES Pressure groups The people/electors/ taxpayers/ratepayers Business/ professions Religious organizations etc.
Power-based models (cont’d) • Marxism – the state supports the interests of capitalism • Corporatism – government controlled by industrial/commercial interests • Professionalism – power lies with professionals – e. g. public servants, Treasury economists • Technocracy – power wielded by technocrats – e. g. defence/nuclear • Hallmark decision-making – decisions made by government/growth regimes for big projects without ‘due process’ – e. g. large building projects, hosting the Olympic Games Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Rationality models Rational-comprehensive model
Rationalcomprehensive model (Fig. 6. 3) 1. Terms of reference/brief 2. Values/mission/vision/goals 3. Decide planning approach 4. Environmental appraisal 5. Consult with stakeholders 6. Develop options 7. Evaluate options 8. Decide strategy/goals/ objectives 9. Implement/manage 10. Monitor/evaluate/ Feedback
Rational-comprehensive model (cont’d) • Unrealistic/impractical? • Alternatives: – Simon: ‘bounded rationality’ – Lindblom: disjointed incrementalism: ‘muddling through’ – Etzioni: mixed scanning Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Other approaches • Public choice model – democratic process is similar to markets – voting power = consumer market power • Institutional approaches – decision-making is influenced by institutional structures • Personal, cognition, information processing – decision-making is influenced by personality, etc. , of leaders Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Urban growth regimes and governance of the local state • Urban growth regimes: – consortia of politicians and business interests who pursue a particular growth agenda for a city • e. g. redevelopment of city centre; attracting a sport franchise; hosting Olympic Games • Idea of the ‘local state’ – governance = all ‘players’ in local state Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning, 4 th edition, Veal, 2017, CABI Tourism Texts
Local state (Fig. 6. 4) Higher levels of government (legal framework + funding) COUNCIL Political parties Other statutory bodies Citizens/ Elected councillors/ Mayor Trade unions Paid council officers ratepayers Voluntary serviceproviding bodies Media Businesses/ business organizations Pressure groups Clients
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