Business Research Methods 1 Research a somewhat intimidating

Business Research Methods 1

� Research, a somewhat intimidating term WHAT IS RESEARCH? for some, is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situation factors. 2

Meaning of research Research is an art of scientific investigation. Dictionary definition of research is a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. � Some people consider research as a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness. When the unknown confront us, more and more our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain understanding of the unknown. �

Definition of Research � According to Clifford woody, research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

BUSINESS RESEARCH Business research can be described as a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem encountered in the work setting, which needs a solution. 5

� We can define business research as an DEFINITION OF BUSINESS RESEARCH organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with purpose of finding answers or solutions to it. 6

SOME COMMONLY RESEARCHED AREAS IN BUSINESS 1. 2. 3. Employee behaviors such as performance, absenteeism, and turnover Employee attitudes such as job satisfaction, loyalty, and organizational commitment Supervisory performance, managerial leadership style, and performance appraisal systems. 7

TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: APPLIED AND BASIC 1. Applied research Research done with the intention of applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems currently being experienced in an organization. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution, marketing research, evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problems. 8

Fundamental research/pure research/basic research Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. It doesnot usually generate findings that have immediate applications in a practical level. Fundamental research is driven by curiosity and the desire to expand knowledge in the specific research area.

Qualities of a researcher 1) general qualities Scientific mind- he must have a scientific mind. He should not be influenced or guided by superficial facts. He must give up personal likes and dislikes. The research should be performed along scientific lines. b) Seeker of truth and knowledge- a researcher is a seeker of truth. So he himself must be truthful and sincere. He must be prepared to make any type of sacrifice in terms of time, money and energy to find out the real truth. c) Alertness, insight and imagination- he must have the mind to work under all circumstances. A researcher should be accurate in observation, quick in perception and statement. He must be disciplined. And must have a high degree of imaginative power. a)

d) Quick power of understanding and ability for explaining- he must know his subject thoroughly. He must be a good conversationalist and must possess ability to put across ideas to others. He should have the ability to grasp things quickly E) trained and educated –a researcher must have good knowledge about his area of research. He must have sufficient experience and training to understand, analyse and solve the problem. F) patient and educated- a researcher must have the quality of patience. A research combines in itself success and failure. A researcher must not feel defeated if the desired outcome doesnot come forth at the expected time. Many years may be required to complete the project.

� � Knowledge of the subject: the research worker should have a complete knowledge of the subject under study. this knowledge helps him in preparing forms of questionnire and schedule and getting proper information. � b) Knowledge of the technique of research-the researcher should also possess intimate knowledge of the technique that is to be applied to the problem. � c)Personal taste in the study � d) Unbiased attitude-he must maintain an open mind towards the subject under study � e)Familiarity about the informants- the researcher must be familiar with the people whom he is studying. 2 specific qualities

THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 1 -3 1. Purposiveness Started the research with a definite aim or purpose 2. Rigor connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and the degree of exactitude in research investigations 3. Testability The manager or researcher develops certain hypotheses on how employee commitment can be enhanced, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the purpose. 13

THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 2 -3 4. Replicability The results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again and yet again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumstances. 5. Precision and confidence Design the research in a manner the ensures that our findings are as close to reality Precision: reflects the degree of accuracy or exactitude of the results on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in the universe. Confidence: refer to the probability that our estimations are correct, it is important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results will be true and there is only a 5 % 14 chance of our being wrong.

THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 3 -3 6. Objectivity The conclusion drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis should be based on facts of the findings derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values. 7. Generalizability Refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one organizational setting to other settings 8. Parsimony Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that occur, and in generating solutions for the problem, And it can be introduced with a good understanding of the problem and the important factors that influence it. 15

Problems in research � 1) � 2) Lack of training. In sufficiant interaction between university research departments and business establishments. � 3) Reluctance on the part of business units to supply information � 4) Rivalries at university and departmental levels. � 5) Inadequate secretarial assistance to researchers. � 6) Unsatisfactory library facilities. � 7) Unavailability of data published by government.

Subjectivity and objectivity in research subjective study is that in which the likes and dislike, feelings and attitudes of the investigator influence the study while in objective study the investigator remains passive, he does not view the subject of his study or the social phenomena from his subjective point of view.

Descripti ve vs. Analytical 6/19/2013 Applied vs. Fundamental Quantitati ve vs. Qualitative BRM-Types Of Research ( Conceptu al vs. Empirical 1 8

DESCRIPTIVE ANALYTICAL • Descriptive research includes surveys • In analytical research, on the and fact-finding enquiries of different other hand, the researcher has to use kinds. facts or information already available, • The major purpose of descriptive and analyze these to make a critical research is description of the state of evaluation of the material. affairs as it exists at present. • The main characteristic of this method is • Analytical research attempts to explain that the researcher has no control over why and how. It usually concerns itself the variables; he can only report what with cause–effect relationships among has happened or what is happening. variables. • Example 1: Examining the fluctuations of U. S. international trade balance during • Example 1: Explaining why and how U. S. 1974 -1995. trade balance move in a particular way • 2. Starting from late 1986, the value of over time. U. S. dollar value has steadily increased • 2. While explaining how and why this against the Japanese yen and German surge in the value of U. S. dollar is going Mark. Examining the magnitude of this to affect the U. S. Is analytical research. trend in the value of U. S. 6/19/2013 dollar is another example of Of Research ( 1 BRM-Types 9

APPLIED FUNDAMENTAL • Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation. • Fundamental research is mainly concerned with. generalisations and with the formulation of a theory • The central aim of applied research is • Basic research is directed towards to discover a solution for some finding information that has a broad pressing practical problem. base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge. • Examples: Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business. Research • Examples: Research concerning some to identify social, economic or political natural phenomenon, human trends that may affect particular behaviour carried on with a view to institution or marketing resear- make generalisations about human ch, or evaluation research are behaviour examples of applied research. 6/19/2013 BRM-Types Of Research ( 2 0

Examples of Research Applied • Improve agricultural crop production. • Kerala to begin research to develop Nipah drug -. • Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation. • To diagnose the very low use of a certain collection in a library. 2 1

Examples of Research Basic • How did the universe begin? • What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of? 2 2

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH • Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i. e. , phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance , when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour(why people think or do certain things) • Quantitative research is based on quantitative measurements of some characteristics. • Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. • This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. • It usually involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions drawn. • It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. • Example- Total sales of soap industry in terms of rupees , cores and or quantity in terms of lakhs tones for particular year, say 2008, could be researched, • For instance, when we are interested in compared with past 5 years and then Investigating the reasons for human projection for 2009 could be

better & deeper understanding of the or disprove the hypothesis after which issue concerning theorem. Conceptual experimental designs are made to bring research is a useful method but should be forth the desired information. used in conjunction with other methods to Eg listening to instrumental music while produce better & understandable results. studying has a negative impact on the effectiveness of studies. based on the conjectures, some predictions are deduced, for example; people who listen to instrumental music while studying have a hard time learning than those who study in complete silence. 6/19/2013 BRM-Types O f Research ( 7

Some other types of research All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which the research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factors.

Exploratory Research Exploratory research is a preliminary study of a new problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. Exploratory research is conducted into an issue or problem where there are few or no earlier studies to refer to. The results of these research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can provide significant insight in to a given situation.

Creative research includes the development of new theories , new procedures , new inventions etc. These research includes both practical and theoritical research. practical creative research is about the design of physical things while theoretical creative research is about the creation of new models Creative research

The research which makes use of observations based on past events is known as research in historical approach. Historical research is therefore utilises the past events to arrive at conclusion of present. Historical research

�This research is based purely on existing information. Studying a field and then analyzing and synthesizing all the points gathered on a particular subject, a researcher can develop new insights. EXPOSITORY RESEARCH

Overlappin g of research studies Lack of a scientif ic trainin g Insufficient interaction lack of a code of conduct for researchers Lack of secretarial assistance 6/19/2013 Question of Confidential ity Untimely availability of data BRM-Types Of Research ( 30

Lack of a scientific training • There is paucity of competent researchers • Many researchers take a leap in the dark without knowing research methods Consequences: • Most of the work, which goes in the name of research is not methodologically sound. • The research results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or realities. Solution: • Efforts should be made to provide short-duration intensive courses to make researchers well equipped with all the methodological aspects. 6/19/2013 BRM-Types Of Research ( 31

Insufficient interaction • A great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remain untouched/untreated by the researchers for want of proper contacts. Solution: • Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory liaison among all concerned for better and realistic researches. • Industry interaction programme

Question of Confidentiality • Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied by them to researchers will not be misused. Consequences: • Reluctance in supplying the needed information to researchers. Solution: • Generate the confidence that the Information will be confidential. BRM-Types Of Research (

Overlapping of research studies • Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate information. Consequences: • Duplication Solution: • Proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals

Lack of a code of conduct for researchers • There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. Solution: • Develop a code of conduct for researchers

Lack of secretarial assistance • Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance , including computerized assistance. Consequences: • Delay in the completion of research studies. Solution: • University Grants Commission must play a dynamic role in providing secretarial assistance.

Untimely availability of data • There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government and other agencies. • published data vary quite significantly because of differences in coverage by the concerning agencies. Consequences: • The time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc. , Solution: • Efforts should be made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach our libraries.

What is Theory? “Aformal, logical explanation of someevents that includes predictions of how things relate to one another. ” (Zikmund, 2010, p 39)

What is Good Theory? “Atheory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements. It must accurately describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a few arbitrary elements(based on chance rather than being planned). Andit must make definite predictions about the result of future observations” (Source: Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, 1988 )

Theory is defined as a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict a phenomenon. For example, “the standard of living of a family is dependent on its income, size and lifestyle. ” This is a theory which provides a basis for studying consumer behavior and formulating appropriate marketing strategies.

�Theory building is a process of creativity and imagination. it demands careful indication on the importance and uniqueness of the phenomenon at hand, the questions explored, and the context of the research. the methods used formulating theories are i) Deduction ii) Induction iii) retroduction Theory building

Deduction follows an approach which is “ top down” or from general to specific. In deduction we start from a theory and try to prove it right with the help of available information Aristotle, a greek philosopher, described deduction as “drawing conclusions by applying rules and principles; logically moving from a general rule or principle to a specific solution” Eg; “All men are mortal”. “Rama is a man”. Therefore “Rama is mortal”. Here the first two statements (or propositions)are premises and the third is the conclusion. DEDUCTION

The Process of Deduction Theory Hypothesis Data Collection Findings Waterfall Hypotheses confirmed or rejected Revision of theory (Bryman, 2006, p 11)

The inductive method consists of studying several individual cases and drawing a generalization. This method involves moving from a specific situation to a general conclusion. This is a way of “theory building”, where by “specific facts are used to create a theory that explains relationships between the facts and allows prediction of future knowledge” Induction includes two process namely observation and generalization. INDUCTION

Retroduction Abductive reasoning(also called abduction, abductive inference, or retroduction) is a form of logical inference which starts with an observation or set of observations then seeks to find the simplest and most likely explanation. Eg 1) “ Jhon was in the building at the time of the murder. perhaps he is the killer, ” or “the blood on the victim’s shirt matches jhon’s blood type. perhaps jhon is the killer. 2)The doctor hears her patients symptoms, including the regular shortness of breath on cold days and when exercising and abduces that the best explanation of these symptions is that her patient is an asthma sufferer.

A prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. Prediction is about what researcher expects to find in his/her research. Hypotheses are more specific than theories. A theory could have many different hypotheses. If the hypotheses offered by theory are confirmed, theory is supported. If the hypotheses offered by theory are rejected, theory is not supported and should be re-evaluated through further research.

• Independent Variable: The presumed “cause” in theoretical model. • Dependent Variable: The presumed “effect” in theoretical model. • Moderating Variable: Suspected or known to impact or influence the Dependent Variable.

Example of Theoretical Model Independent Variables Dependent Variables Perceived Usefulness Adoption of IT Tools Perceived Ease of Use Culture Moderating Variables

The Process of Induction Theory Draw Conclusion Hill Climbing Test & Analyse Form Hypotheses Observations State the Question

Theorie s I N D U C T I O N Wheel of Science Empirical Generalizations Hypotheses Observations (Source: Adapted from Walter Wallace, The Logic of Science in Sociology, 1971) D E D U C T I O N

Source: Saunders et al, (2009)

SOME OBSTACLES TO CONDUCTING SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN THE MANAGEMENT AREA In the management and behavioral areas, it is not always possible to conduct investigations that are 100 % scientific, in the sense that, unlike in the physical sciences, the results obtained will not be exact and error-free. This is primarily because of difficulties likely to be encountered in the measurement and collection of data in the subjective areas of feelings, emotions, attitudes, and perceptions. 52

THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD Scientific research pursues a step –by- step, logical, organized, and rigorous method to find a solution to a problem 53

THE SEVEN-STEP PROCESS IN THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD 1 -2 1. Identify a broad problem area A drop in sales, frequent production interruptions, … and the like, could attract the attention of manager and catalyze the research project 2. Define the problem statement Problem statement that stats the general objective of the research should be developed 3. Develop hypotheses In this step variable are examined as to their contribution or influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be solved. 4. Determine measures Unless the variables in theoretical framework are measured in some way, we will not be able to test our hypotheses. 54

THE SEVEN-STEP PROCESS IN THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD 2 -2 5. Data collection Data with respect to each variable in the hypothesis need to be obtained. 6. Data analysis In the data analysis step, the data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were generated have been supported 7. Interpretation of data Now we must decide whether our hypotheses are supported or not by interpreting the meaning of the results of the data analysis. 55

REVIEW OF THE HYPOTHETCO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD Deductive reasoning is a key element in the hypothetico—deductive methods. Deductive reasoning: start with a general theory and then apply this theory to a specific case. Inductive reasoning: works in the opposite direction it is a process where we observe specific phenomena and on this basis arrive at general conclusions. 56

OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH Case studies and action research are sometimes used to study certain types of issues. Case studies Involve in depth, contextual analyses of similar situations in other organizations. Case study, as a problem solving technique, is not often undertaken in organizations Action research Is sometimes undertaken by consultants who want to initiate change processes in organizations. Thus, action research is a constantly evolving project with interplay among problem, solution, effects or consequences, and new solution. 57

Chapter Three The research process The broad problem area and defining the problem statement 58

The definition of problem is any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal states. Example: training program is not as effective as anticipated 59

1. BROAD PROBLEM AREA : After identification of the broad problem area through the process of observation and focusing on the situation we need to be narrowed down to a specific problem statement after some preliminary information (interviews and literature research) is gathered by the researcher. 60

2. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION GATHERING : a) Data sources : 1. 2. Primary data sources ( it is that information’s that the researcher obtain it by himself by , talking , observing, and administrating questionnaires ) Secondary data sources ( it is that information’s that already existed and the researcher has no role in obtaining it but he read it and take what he need from it ) 61

b) Data nature : �Unstructured interviews, and a review through existing sources of information will help us to narrow the broad problem area and to define a specific problem statement. 62

Collection of information’s about the following factors to stand on the real issues instead of working only on the surface symptoms a) Contextual factors ( background information of the organization ) b) Structural factors ( philosophy, policies, goals, system structure, reward system ) c) Attitudinal factors ( information’s about believes and reactions the members of organization about certain subjects like , nature of the work, reward system , opportunities ) d) Behavioral factors (actual work habits ) 63

In some cases there are variables that are not identified during the interviews but influence the problem critically, then research done without considering them is an exercise in futility, in such case the true reason for the problem will remain unidentified even at the end of the research, to avoid such possibilities the researcher needs to delve into all the important research relating to the particular problem area. 64

The literature review helps the researcher 3. � LITERATURE REVIEW : � to develop a good problem statement; it ensures that no important variable is overlooked in the process of defining the problem Sometimes the investigator might spend considerable time and effort in “discovering” something that has already been thoroughly researched. A Literature review would prevent such a waste of resources in reinventing the wheel. 65

CONDUCTING THE LITERATURE REVIEW 1 - Data sources ( you will need to use a combination of information resources the precise combination of resources depend on the nature and the objectives of your research project ) this combination come from information’s from text books, journals, theses, conference proceedings, unpublished manuscripts, reports, newspapers, the internet. 66

2 - Searching for literature In past go through several bibliographical indexes but now by computer online systems (locating sources to locate and printout the published information) Internet online searching directories (subject, title, geographical location, trade opportunities, industrial plants, foreign traders, data bases) 67

3 - Evaluating the literature Accessing the online system and searching for literature in the area of interest will provide a comprehensive bibliography on the subject. 68

4 - Documenting the literature review Is important to convince the reader that a) The researcher is knowledgeable about the problem area and has done the preliminary homework that is necessary to conduct the research b) The theoretical framework will be structured on work already done and will add to the solid foundation of existing knowledge. 69

DEFINING THE PROBLEM STATEMENT There are three key criteria to assess the quality of the problem statement: it should be relevant, feasible, and interesting. It is very important that symptoms of problems are not defined as the real problem When you have defined the problem statement you are ready to start your research first however you need to communicate the problem statement and a number of other important frame and the budget 70

Chapter Four The research process Theoretical framework and hypothesis development 71

72

THE NEED FOR A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK A theoretical framework is the foundation of hypothetico-deductive research. Represents your believes on how certain phenomena are related to each other. 73

THE PROCESS OF BUILDING A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK INCLUDES: 1. 2. 3. Introducing definitions of the concept or variable in your model. Developing a conceptual model that provides a descriptive representation of your theory Coming up with a theory that provides an explanation for relationships between the variable in your model. 74

VARIABLES: A variable is anything that can take on differing or vareing values. Examples of variables are: production units, absentiesm and motivation. 75

TYPES OF VARIABLES : 1 - Dependent variable The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. Through the analysis of the dependent variable is possible to find answers or solutions to the problem 76

2 - Independent variable The independent variable is generally conjectured that an independent variable is one that influences the independent variable in either a positive or negative way. That is, when the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present, and with each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable. 77

3 - Moderating variable The moderating variable is the presence of a third variable that modifies the relationship between the independent and the dependent variables. 78

4 - Mediating variable The mediating variable is one that surfaces between the time the independent variable start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it. The Mediating variable surfaces as a function of the independent variable operating in any situation, and helps to conceptualize and explain the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable. 79

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The theoretical framework is the foundation on which the entire research project is based. Variables are relevant to the problem situation and identified through; interviews, observations and leterature review. Experience and intuition also guide the development of theoretical framework after identifying the appropriate variable, the next step is to elaborate the network of associations among the variables, so that relevant hypotheses can be developed and subsequently tested. Based on the results of hypothesis testing the extend to which the problem can be solved becomes evident. 80

The theoretical framework: o o o Represents and elaborates the relationship among the variables. Explains theory underlying these relations. Describes the nature and direction of the relationships. Just as the literature review sets the stage for a good theoretical framework, this in turn provides the logical base for developing testable hypothesis. 49

BASIC FEATURES IN ANY THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly defined. A conceptual model that describes the relationships between the variables in the model should be given. There should be a clear explanation of why we expect these relationships to exist. Both a schematic diagram of the conceptual model and a description of the relationships between the variables in words should be given, so that the reader can see and easily comprehend theorized relationships. 82

HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT Hypothesis can be defined as logically conjectured relationships between two or more variables expressed in the form of testable statement. By testing the hypothesis and confirming the conjectured relationships, it is expected that solutions can be found to correct the problem incountered. 83

STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS : FORMATS 1 - If-Then statement To examine whether or not the conjectured relationship or differences exist, this hypothesis can be set either propositions or in the form of If-Then statement. Example: IF the employees are more healthy, THEN they will take sick leave less frequently. 84

2 - Directional and non directional hypothesis If, instating the relationship between two variables or comparing two groups, terms such as positive, negative, more then, less then, and the like are used, then these are: Directional hypothesis because the direction of the relationship between the variables ( positive – negative) is indicated. Example: The greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of employees. Non directional hypothesis there is a significant relationship between two variables, we may not be able to say whether the relationship is positive or negative. Example: There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction. 85

� 3 - Null and alternate hypothesis Null hypothesis may state that the �correlation between two variables is equal to zero. The null statement is expressed in terms of there being no relationship between two variables. The alternate hypothesis, whish is the opposite of the null, is a statement expressing a relationship between two 54

The steps to be followed in hypothesis testing are: 1. State the null and the alternate hypothesis. 2. Choose the appropriate statistical test depending on whether the data collected are parametric or non parametric. 87

Chapter Seven Measurement Scaling, Reliability, Validity 88

SCALES: Is tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from one to another on the variables of interest to our study 89

THERE ARE FOUR BASIC TYPES OF SCALES: Nominal scale Ordinal scale Interval scale Ratio scale 90

1 - NOMINAL SCALE : Allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain categories or groups it categorize individuals or objects into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups, thus such scaling tells us nothing more about the two groups and gives some basic, categorical, gross information, personal data such gender or department in which one works , 91

There are two types : a) Dichotomous scale : Used to … elicit a yes or no answer ex. Do you own a car? Yes no b) Category scale : Used to … elicit a single response ex. Where in London do you reside? - east London - south London - west London - north London -outskirts 92

2 - ORDINAL SCALE: In this scale the respondents might be asked to indicate their preferences by ranking the importance they attach to five distinct characteristics in a job that the researcher might be interested in studying Job characteristic Ranking of importance The opportunity provided by the job to - Interact with people - Use a number of different skills - Complete a whole task from beginning to end - Serve others - Work independently 93

The ordinal scale helps researcher to determine the percentage of respondents who consider interaction with others as most important, those who consider using a number of different skills as most important and so on, such knowledge might help in designing jobs that are seen as most enriched by the majority of the employees. 94

Here we know the differences in the ranking of objects, persons, or events investigated but we don’t know their magnitude There are two types: • Fixed or constant scale: The respondents are here asked to distribute a given number of points across various items as shown in example: Toilet soap Fragrance 40 Color 10 Shape 10 size 20 Texture of lather 20 Total points 100 95

Graphic rating scale: Used to obtain responses regarding people’s feelings with respect to some aspect or how they feel about their jobs It’s a graphical representation helps the respondents to indicate on this scale their answers to a particular question by placing a mark at the appropriate point on the line How would you rate your supervisor? • 10 excellent 5 adequate 1 very bad 96

3 - INTERVAL SCALE: In nominal scale we can make qualitatively distinguish groups by categorizing them into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive and in ordinal scale allow us to rank order the preferences the interval scale indicate whether once preference is the same extent, or a greater extent than the second. 97

This can be done by changing the scale from the ranking type to make it appear as if there are several points on a scale that represent the extent or magnitude. So it used when responses to various items that measure a variable can be tapped on a five points ormore Strongly disagree 1 disagree 2 neither agree nor disagree 3 agree 4 strongly agree 5 Interacting with other 1 2 3 4 5 Using a number of different skills 1 2 3 4 5 Completing a task from beginning to end 1 2 3 4 5 Serving others 1 2 3 4 5 Working independently 1 2 3 4 5 98

There are five types: 1) Semantic differential scale: ﻳﻈﻔﻞ It is used to assess respondent’s attitudes toward a particular brand, advertisement, object, or individual. Several bipolar attributes: respondents are asked to indicate their attitudes toward a particular individual, object Several bipolar adjectives: used might employ such terms as good-bad, strong-weak, hot-cold Responsive -----unresponsive Beautiful ----ugly Courageous ------- timid 99

2) Numerical scale : ﻳﺪﺩﻉ Similar to the semantic scale but with numbers on five-point or seven-point scale are provided Extremely pleased 7654321 extremely displeased 100

3) Itemized rating scale : ﺍﻫﻞ ﻻﻭﺩﺝ ﻋﻀﻲ ﻭﺃ ﺗﺎﺩﺭﻓﻤﻼ ﻟﺼﻔﻲ It provides the flexibility to use as point in the scale as considered necessary (4, 5, 7, 9 or whatever) and its possible to use different anchors e. g. very unimportant to very important and extremely low to extremely high )when a neutral point is provided it is a balanced rating scale, and when it is not it is an unbalanced rating scale. 1 Very unlikely 1 2 3 2 Unlikely 3 4 Neither unlikely nor likely I will be changing my job within the next 12 months I will take on new assignments in the near future It is possible that I will be out of this organization within the next 12 months 5 Very likely It is balanced rating scale with a neutral point Not at all interested 1 Somewhat interested Moderately interested 2 How would you rate your interest in changing current organizational policies? 1 2 3 3 Very much interested 4 4 It is unbalanced rating scale which does not have a neutral point. 101

4) Likert scal e: Used in it the summated approach My work is very interesting 1 2 3 4 5 I am not engrossed in my work all day 1 2 3 4 5 Life without my work would be dull 1 2 3 4 5 High score in items I and 3 reflects a favorable attitude to work this will lead to high total scores for respondents who have a favorable attitude toward work and low total scores for respondents who have an unfavorable attitude towards work. 102

5) Staple scale: This scale measures both the direction and intensity of the attitude toward the items under study Rate your supervisor abilities: +3 +2 +1 Adopting modern technology -1 -2 -3 +3 +2 +1 Product innovation -1 -2 -3 +3 +2 +1 Interpersonal skills -1 -2 -3 103

4 - RATIO SCALE: Usually used in organizational research when exact numbers on objective (as opposed to subjective) factors are called: 1. How many other organizations did you work for before joining this system? 2. Please indicate the number of children you in each of the following categories: --- Below 3 years of age --- Between 3 and 6 --- Over 6 years but under 12 --- 12 years and over 3. How many retail outlets do you operate? The responses to the questions could range from 0 to any 104 reasonable figure.

Chapter Ten Sampling 105

DEFINITIONS: Population: Group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate. Element: A single member of the population. Sample: Some members selected from population. Sampling Unit: The element that is available for selection. Subject: Single member of the sample. Parameters: Characteristics of the population 106

1 Defining the population: THE SAMPLING PROCESS: �Sampling begin with precisely defining the target population, the researcher objective and the scope of the study play a crucial role in defining the target population. 2 Determining the sample frame: �The sampling frame is a representation of all the elements in the population from whish the sample is drawn. 3 Determining the sampling design: ( Two types ) Probability sampling, the elements in the population have some known probability of being selected as sample subject. �Non probability sampling, the elements do not have a known chance of being selected as sample subject. 107

4 - Determining the sample size: Factors affecting decisions on sample size are: Researcher objective. Extent of precision desired. Acceptable risk in predicting that level of precision. Amount of variability in the population itself. Cost and time constraints. Size of the population. 108

PROBABILITY SAMPLING: When elements in the population have a known chance of being chosen as subjects in the sample. Types of Probability sampling: 1 - Unrestricted or simple random sampling: Every element in the population has a known and equal chance of being selected. 109

2 - Restricted or complex probability sampling: Systematic sampling Stratified random sampling Cluster sampling Double sampling It is a design that involves drawing every nth element in the population starting with a randomly chosen element between 1 and n. « Easy and quickness in developing the sample » It helps to estimate population to have a different parameters on a variable of interest. Population is first divided into mutually exclusive groups that are relevant. « Good choice when differentiated information is needed » Samples are gathered in groups, target population is first divided into clusters. Then a random sample of cluster is drawn and for each selected cluster either all the elements or a sample of elements are included in the sample. « Useful when a heterogeneous group is to be studied » When a sample is used in a study to collect some preliminary information of interest and later a subsample of this primary sample is used to examine the matter in more details. « Provides added information at minimal additional expenditure » 110

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING: When elements in the population do not have any probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample subjects. Convenient Sampling: Refers to the collection of information from members of the population who are conveniently available to provide it. It is used during the exploratory phase of a research project and is perhaps the best way of getting some basic information quickly and efficiently. 111

Purposive sampling: Confined to a specific type of people who can provide the desired information Types of purposive sampling: Judgment Sampling Used when a limited number or category of people have the information that is sought. « Help to obtain specialized information » Quota Sampling In which a predetermined proportion of people are sampled from different groups. « Allow inclusion of all groups so small in number are not neglected » 112

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INTRODUCTION • • It uses both a graphical and a syntactical interface managing, analyzing, and presenting data 114

SOME DEFINITIONS Population (universe) is the collection of things under consideration Sample is a portion of the population selected for analysis Statistic is a summary measure computed to describe a characteristic of the sample 115

Mean (average) is the sum of the values divided by the number of values Median is the midpoint of the values (50% above; 50% below) after they have been ordered from the smallest to the largest, or the largest to the smallest Mode is the value among all the values observed that appears most frequently Range is the difference between the smallest and largest observation in the sample 116

TYPE OF DATA Categorical data: There are basically two kinds of data in this groups: 1. Nominal data (named categories), e. g. gender (male/female), ethnicity (Malay, Chinese, Indian), outcome (dead/alive), etc. The nominal data are summarised by percentages. 2. Ordinal data (ordered categories), e. g. there is an order to the values high, medium, and low, but the distance between values cannot be calculated. Likert scale (5 -point scale, 1 -5), etc. The ordinal data are summarised by median value. 117

“Scale” Continuous data: Continuous data is sometime referred to as interval data. These data take the form of a range of number, and may or may not have decimals, e. g. age, weight, height, salary, etc. The continuous data are summarized by mean and standard deviation (SD). 118

VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION Variance (deviations) is a measure of the dispersion of a sample (or how closely the observations cluster around the mean [average]) Standard Deviation, the square root of the variance, is the measure of variation in the observed values (or variation in the clustering around the mean), it helps detect tampering of data. 119

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