BUS 418 CHAPTER 11 OBSERVATION METHODS Observation in
BUS 418: CHAPTER 11: OBSERVATION METHODS Observation in Business Research Observation becomes a tool for scientific inquiry when it meets several conditions: • The observation serves a formulated research purpose. • The observation is planned systematically. • The observation is recorded systematically and related to general propositions, rather than simply reflecting a set of interesting curiosities. • The observation is subjected to checks or controls on validity and reliability What Can Be Observed?
• The Nature of Observation Studies A situation in which an observer’s presence is known to the subject involves visible observation. • A situation in which a subject is unaware that observation is taking place is hidden observation. Observation of Human Behavior
Complementary Evidence The results of observation studies may extend the results of other forms of research by providing complementary evidence concerning individuals’ “true” feelings. Focus group interviews often are conducted behind two-way mirrors from which executives observe as well as listen to what is occurring. This additional source allows for interpretation of nonverbal behavior such as facial expressions or head nods to supplement information from interviews. Direct Observation Direct observation can produce detailed records of what people actually do during an event. The observer plays a passive role, making no attempt to control or manipulate a situation, instead merely recording what occurs.
ERRORS ASSOCIATED WITH DIRECT OBSERVATION Although direct observation involves no interaction with the subject, the method is not error-free; the observer may record events subjectively. The same visual cues that may influence the interplay between interviewer and respondent (e. g. , the subject’s age or sex) may come into play in some direct observation settings, such as when the observer subjectively attributes a particular economic status or educational background to a subject. SCIENTIFICALLY CONTRIVED OBSERVATION Most observation takes place in a natural setting, but sometimes the investigator intervenes to create an artificial environment in order to test a hypothesis. This approach is called contrived observation.
Combining Direct Observation and Interviewing Some research studies combine visible observation with personal interviews. During or after detailed observations, individuals are asked to explain their actions. For example, direct observation of women applying hand body lotion identified two kinds of users. Some women slapped on the lotion, rubbing it briskly into their skin. Others caressed their skin as they applied the lotion. When the women were questioned about their behavior, the researchers discovered that women who slapped the lotion on were using the lotion as a remedy for dry skin. Those who caressed their skin were more interested in making their skin smell nice and feel soft. Ethical Issues in the Observation of Humans While exceptions exist to every rule, here are three questions that can help address this question: 1. Is the behavior being observed commonly performed in public where it is expected that others can observe the behavior? 2. Is the behavior performed in a setting in which the anonymity—meaning there is no way to identify individuals—of the person being observed is assured? 3. Has the person agreed to be observed?
Observation of Physical Objects Physical phenomena may be the subject of observation study. Physical-trace evidence is a visible mark of some past event or occurrence. For example, the wear on library books indirectly indicates which books are actually read (handled most) when checked out. Content Analysis Besides observing people and physical objects, researchers may use content analysis, which obtains data by observing and analyzing the contents or messages of advertisements, newspaper articles, television programs, letters, and the like. This method involves systematic analysis as well as observation to identify the specific information content and other characteristics of the messages.
Mechanical Observation Television Monitoring • Perhaps the best-known research project involving mechanical observation and computerized data collection is ACNielsen’s television monitoring system for estimating national television audiences. Nielsen Media Research uses a consumer panel and a monitoring device called a People. Meter to obtain ratings for television programs nationwide Monitoring Web Site Traffic CLICK THROUGH RATES A click-through rate (CTR) is the percentage of people who are exposed to an advertisement who actually click on the corresponding hyperlink which takes them to the company’s Web site. Counting hits or page views can suggest the amount of interest or attention a Web site is receiving, but these measures are flawed. First, hits do not differentiate between a lot of activity by a few visitors and a little activity by many visitors. In addition, the researcher lacks information about the meaning behind the numbers. If a user clicks on a site many times, is the person finding a lot of useful or enjoyable material, or is the user trying unsuccessfully to find something by looking in several places? Additionally, some hits are likely made by mistake. The consumers may have had no intention of clicking through the ad or may not have known what they were doing when they clicked on the ad.
Scanner-Based Research One of the primary means of implementing this type of research is through the establishment of a scanner based consumer panel to replace consumer purchase diaries. In a typical scanner panel, each household is assigned a bar-coded card, like a frequent-shopper card, which members present to the clerk at the register. The household’s code number is coupled with the purchase information recorded by the scanner. In addition, as with other consumer panels, background information about the household obtained through answers to a battery of demographic and psychographic survey questions can also be coupled with the household code number.
Data from scanner research parallel data provided by a standard mail diary panel, with some important improvements: 1. The data measure observed (actual) purchase behavior rather than reported behavior (recorded later in a diary). 2. Substituting mechanical for human record-keeping improves accuracy. 3. Measures are unobtrusive, eliminating interviewing and the possibility of social desirability or other bias on the part of respondents. 4. More extensive purchase data can be collected, because all UPC categories are measured. In a mail diary, respondents could not possibly reliably record all items they purchased. Because all UPC-coded items are measured in the panel, users can investigate many product categories to determine loyalty, switching rates, and so on for their own brands as well as for other companies’ products and locate product categories for possible market entry. 5. The data collected from computerized checkout scanners can be combined with data about the timing of advertising, price changes, displays, and special sales promotions. Researchers can scrutinize them with powerful analytical software provided by the scanner data providers.
Measuring Physiological Reactions An eye-tracking monitor, which measures unconscious eye movements. The devices track eye movements with invisible infrared light beams that lock onto a subject’s eyes. A pupilometer observes and records changes in the diameter of a subject’s pupils. A subject is instructed to look at a screen on which an advertisement or other stimulus is projected. A psychogalvanometer measures galvanic skin response (GSR), a measure of involuntary changes in the electrical resistance of the skin. Voice-pitch analysis is a relatively new physiological measurement technique that gauges emotional reactions as reflected in physiological changes in a person’s voice.
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