Buddhist Art in Southern Asia History of Buddhism

Buddhist Art in Southern Asia History of Buddhism & Buddhist Art in Suwarnbhumi Lectured by Ven. Phramaha Somphong Santacitto, Ph. D.

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QUESTIONS? When did the Buddhist art of India spread out to the Southern Asia? How many categories of Buddhist Art are there in Asia? and so what? How many periods are there in the Buddhist Art of Asia? and so what? How is the Buddhist art of Asia in each period? What are the reasons for creating BA of each school of art? When, How and which schools of Buddhist Art in India influenced Kingdoms of Southeast Asia?

OBJECTIVES To understand Buddhist art in South and Southeast Asia (Indochina, Malay Peninsular and its evolution in the geographical areas.

COMPARATIVE PERIOD: BUDDHIST ART OF SUWARNABHUMI Schools of art Century Locations Panom Funan 3 rd - 6 th Cambodia Mahanagara 9 th-13 th Southeast Asian peninsula Cambodia Campa 5 th-19 th South and Central Vietnam Mon-Dvaravati 6 th – 9 th South of Burma, Central Thailand Pagan (Pukam) 9 th – 13 th Central and North Burma Srivijaya 7 th-13 th Malay peninsula Lop Buri 9 th-13 th Loburi Chiang Saen - Lanna 11 th-18 th Chiang Saen District Chiengrai Sukhothai 13 th-14 th Sukhothai province Uthong 12 th-15 th Uthong Ayutthaya 15 th-18 th Ayutthaya Bangkok or Rattanakosin 18 th-present Bangkok

ART IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Geographical area: � All these areas � Southeast Asian art is associated with the geographical area that includes modern Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Myanmar (formerly Burma), Singapore, Indonesia, and Malaysia. also collectively known as Indochina. Influences: Influences come primarily from China, India, and indigenous cultures. � Of all the Southeast Asian countries, Vietnam has the most influence from Chinese culture. In many Southeast Asian cultures, Hindu influence is retained despite Islamic conversion. �

SOUTHERN ART Southern Art – Sri Lanka, (Indo-China, Malay peninsulas; Suwannabhumi: Burma, Thailand, Khmers, Laos)

SOUTHERN ART Present Countries Indo-China Malay Peninsula Previous Kingdoms or Empire Champa Java Mon-Dvaravati Pagan (Pukam) Mahanagara Srivijja Loburi Sukhothai Ayutthaya

SOUTHERN BUDDHIST ART The orthodox forms of Buddhism, also known as Southern Buddhism are still practised in Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. During the 1 st century AD, the trade on the overland Silk Road tended to be restricted by the rise of the Parthian empire in the Middle East, an unvanquished enemy of Rome, just as Romans were becoming extremely wealthy and their demand for Asian luxury was rising. This demand revived the sea connections between the Mediterranean Sea and China, with India as the intermediary of choice. From that time, through trade connections, commercial settlements, and even political interventions, India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade routes linked India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam, and numerous urbanized coastal settlements were established there. For more than a thousand years, For more than a thousand years Indian influence was therefore the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism, Brahmanism and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact and through sacred texts and Indian literature such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. This expansion provided the artistic context for the development of Buddhist art in these countries, which then developed characteristics of their own.

SOUTHERN BUDDHIST ART Between the 1 st and 8 th centuries, several kingdoms competed for influence in the region (particularly the Cambodian Funan the Burmese Mon kingdoms) contributing various artistic characteristics, mainly derived from the Indian Gupta style. Combined with a pervading Hindu influence, Buddhist images, votive tablets and Sanskrit inscriptions are found throughout the area. tablets and Sanskrit inscriptions From the 9 th to the 13 th centuries, Southeast Asia had very powerful empires and became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence, but both were adherents of Mahayana Buddhism, and their art expressed the rich Mahayana pantheon of the Bodhisattvas. Theravada Buddhism of the Pali canon was introduced to the region around the 13 th century from Sri Lanka, and was adopted by the newly founded ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai. Since in Theravada Buddhism of the period, Monasteries typically were the central places for the laity of the towns to receive instruction and have disputes arbitrated by the monks, the construction of temple complexes plays a particularly important role in the artistic expression of Southeast Asia from that time. From the 14 th century, the main factor was the spread of Islam to the maritime areas of Southeast Asia, overrunning Malaysia, Indonesia, and most of the islands as far as the Philippines. In the continental areas, Theravada Buddhism continued to expand into Burma, Laos and Cambodia.

Buddhist art of Sri Lanka

Inside the cave temples of Dambulla, Sri Lanka

AVUKANA BUDDHA STATUE, A 12 M STANDING BUDDHA STATUE BELONGS TO THE REIGN OF DHATUSENA, 5 TH CENTURYA D

SRI LANKA Buddhism was introduced in Sri Lanka in the 3 rd century BC Prior to the expansion of Buddhism, � the indigenous population of Sri Lanka lived in an animistic world full of superstition. The assimilation and conversion of the various pre-Buddhist beliefs was a slow process. In order to gain a foothold among the rural population, Buddhism needed to assimilate the various categories of spirits and other supernatural beliefs. The earliest monastic complex was the Mahāvihāra at Anurādhapura founded by Devānampiyatissa and presented to Mahinda Thera. The Mahāvihāra became the centre of the orthodox Theravāda doctrine and its supreme position remained unchallenged until the foundation of the Abhayagiri Vihāra around BC 89 by Vaţţagāmaņĩ. The Abhayagiri Vihāra became the seat of the reformed Mahāyāna doctrines. The rivalry between the monks of the Mahāvihāra and the Abhayagiri led to a further split and the foundation of the Jetavanarama near the Mahāvihāra. The main feature of Sinhala Buddhism was its division into three major groups, ornikāyas, named after the three main monastic complexes at Anurādhapura; the Mahāvihāra, the Abhayagiri, and the Jetavanārāma. This was the result in the deviations in the disciplinary rules (vinaya) and doctrinal disputes. All the other monasteries of Sri Lanka owed ecclesiastical allegiance to one of the three. Sri Lanka is famous for its creations of Buddhist sculptures made of stone and cast in bronze alloy.

BUDDHIST ART IN SRI LANKA ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM IN SRI LANKA INFLUENCED THE DEVELOPMENT OF SINHALA CULTURE AND THE ARTS Arahat Mahinda, the beginning of Sinhala culture, Art, a whole civilization then at the height of its glory. such as Sangharamas and Cetiyas. The father of Sinhalese literature: Arahat Mahinda brought to the island of the Sinhalese the commentaries of the Tripitaka and put them into Sinhalese for the benefit of the people of the Island. He thus made Sinhalese a literary language and inaugurated its literature. Historians : the acceptance by the people of Sri Lanka of Buddhism, with which the authentic history of the island begins, profoundly influenced the subsequent course of events therein and has imparted to its culture its distinctive character. The foundation of Sinhala Culture was Buddhism. After Buddhism was established in Sri Lanka, it began to develop with the royal patronage provided for it. In a civilization based on Buddhism many changes took place. Mihintalava, as time went on, developed into a sacred precinct, a complete Vihara consisting of Stupas, Uposathagharas, Bodhigharas, Patimagharas, surrounded by Avasas.

Frescos on the Sigiriya rock fortress in Matale District, 5 th century. The seated image, which depicts the dhyana mudra, shows signs of Mahayana influence.

SOUTHERN ART – SUWANNABHUMI Srivijaya Java Mon-Dvaravati Pagan Champa Panom Funan Khmer Lop Buri After Thai occupation Chiang Saen Sukhothai Uthong Ayutthaya Bangkok or Rattanakosin

SOUTHERN ART – CONTEMPORARY Indo-China � Thailand, � Khmers, � Vietnam, � Laos, � Burma, Malay peninsulas � Indonesia � Malaysia

SOUTHERN BUDDHIST ART Buddhism traveled to Southeast Asia through maritime trade routes in the Indian Ocean. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism, Brahmanism and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact, through sacred texts, and Indian literature such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Theravada Buddhism was transmitted to Burma, Siam (Thailand), lower Cambodia, Southern Vietnam, and Indonesia. Several very powerful empires formed in Southeast Asia between the 9 th and 13 thcenturies. These powers, including the Sri Vijaya Empire based in Sumatra, the Khmer Empire in Cambodia, and the ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai, were very active in Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The construction of vast Buddhist temple complexes played a particularly important role in this artistic creation.

Buddhist Art of Suwannabumi

SOUTHEAST-ASIA 1000 - 1100

SOUTHEASTASIA 1300

13 th Century Southeast Asia

SOUTHEASTASIA 1400

Java Art

HINDU-BUDDHIST KINGDOMS ERA In the 4 th and 7 th The Taruma and Sunda kingdoms of western Java appeared in the 4 th and 7 th centuries respectively. first major principality was the Medang Kingdom which was founded in central Java at the beginning of the 8 th century. Medang's religion centred on the Hindu god Shiva, and the kingdom produced some of Java's earliest Hindu temples on the Dieng Plateau. Around the 8 th century the Sailendra dynasty rose in Kedu Plain and become the patron of Mahayana Buddhism. This ancient kingdom built monuments such as the 9 th century Borobudur Around the 10 th century the centre of power shifted from central to eastern Java. The eastern Javanese kingdoms of Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit were mainly dependent on rice agriculture pursued trade within the Indonesian archipelago, and with China and India. Majapahit was established by Wijaya and by the end of the reign of Hayam Wuruk (r. 1350 -89) it claimed sovereignty over the entire Indonesian archipelago, although control was likely limited to Java, Bali and Madura. Hayam Wuruk's prime minister, Gajah Mada, led many of the kingdom's territorial conquests. Previous Javanese kingdoms had their power based in agriculture, however, Majapahit took control of ports and shipping lanes and became Java's first commercial empire. With the death of Hayam Wuruk and the coming of Islam

BUDDHIST ART IN ANCIENT INDONESIA The most beautiful example of classical Javanese Buddhist art is the serene and delicate statue of Prajnaparamita (the collection of National Museum Jakarta) the goddess of transcendental wisdom from Singhasari kingdom.

Extremely rich and refined architectural remains are found in Java and Sumatra. The most magnificent is the temple of Borobudur (the largest Buddhist structure in the world, built around 780 -850 AD). This temple is modelled after the Buddhist concept of universe, the Mandala which counts 505 images of the seated Buddha and unique bell-shaped stupa that contains the statue of Buddha. Borobudur is adorned with long series of bas-reliefs narrated the holy Buddhist scriptures. The oldest Buddhist structure in Indonesia probably is the oldest Buddhist structure Batujaya stupas at Karawang, West Java, dated from around 4 th century. This temple is some plastered brick stupas. Buddhist art in Indonesia reach the golden era during the Sailendra dynasty rule in Java. The bas-reliefs and statues of Boddhisatva, Tara, and Kinnara Tara, found in Kalasan, Sewu, Sari, and Plaosan temple is very graceful with serene expression, While Mendut temple near Borobudur, houses the giant statue of Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani.

Prambanan Hindu temple The 9 th century Borobudur Buddhist stupa in Central Java

Srivijaya art 7 th-13 th

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The Buddha of Grahi, the most notable image of the Srivijaya Period (bronze), Srivijaya (7 th-13 th Century) / Bangkok National Museum, Bangkok, Thailand Avalokitesvara figure from the Srivijaya Period, found in Chaiya, Thailand, 9 th-10 th century (bronze), Srivijaya (7 th-13 th Century) / Bangkok National Museum, Bangkok, Thailand,

Tara statue (bronze), Srivijaya (7 th-13 th Century) / Bangkok National Museum, Bangkok, Thailand Life size image of Bodhisattva Padmapani, from Chaiya, Thailand, 775 AD

Baromdhat chedi at Wat Mahadhat in Nakorn Sri Thammarat. Barommadhat Chaiya in Surat Thani

Srivijaya empire, maritime and commercial kingdom flourished between the 7 th and the 13 th century in the Malay Archipelago. originated in Palembang on Sumatra and soon extended its influence and controlled the Strait of Malacca. based on its control of international sea trade. established trade relations not only with the states in the archipelago but also with China and India.

Buddhist Art in Ancient Indonesia seems to have been most strongly influenced by India from the 1 st century AD. The islands of Sumatra and Java in western Indonesia were the seat of the empire of Sri Vijaya (8 th-13 th century), which came to dominate most of the area around the Southeast Asian peninsula through maritime power. The Sri Vijayan Empire had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, under a line of rulers named the Sailendra. Sri Vijaya spread Mahayana Buddhist art during its expansion into the Southeast Asian peninsula. Numerous statues of Mahayana Bodhisattvas from this period are characterized by a very strong refinement and technical sophistication, and are found throughout the region. In Sumatra Sri Vijaya probably built the temple of Muara Takus, and Muaro Jambi. The Indonesian Buddhist Empire of Sri Vijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers of India, then followed by Majapahit empire, before being destabilized by the Islamic expansion from the 13 th century.

Mon-Dvaravati Art th 6 – 9 th

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DVARAVATI ART - BUDDHA IMAGE AT WAT NA PHRAMEN, AYUTTHAYA. NOTICE THAT THE BUDDHA IS SEATED IN THE 'EUROPEAN STYLE'. THE BUDDHA DISPLAYS NONE OF THE 'CLASSICAL' MUDRAS, AND HIS HANDS ARE LAYING PEACEFULLY PALMS DOWN ON HIS KNEES. Dvaravati art - Buddha, protected by Naga in meditation posture. 8 - 11 th century A. D. Found at Si Mahosot, Prachinburi province. Now in the National Museum, Bangkok.

Dharavati art - Standing Buddha with two hands displaying Vitarka Mudra. 7 - 9 th century A. D. Found at Si Mahosot. Now present at National Museum, Prachinburi. Dvaravati art - Sitting Buddha in Meditation Posture. 8 - 10 th century A. D. Found at Si Mahosot, Prachinburi province. Now present at National Museum, Prachinburi.

DVARAVATI ART - BUDDHA STANDING ON ARUNADITYA. 7 - 11 TH CENTURY A. D. FOUND AT NAKHON PATHOM. NOW PRESENT AT PHRA PATHOM CHEDI NATIONAL MUSEUM, NAKHON PATHOM. Dvaravati art - Head of the Buddha 17 cm high Terracotta image. Found at Wat Phra Ngam, Nakhon Pathom. Now present National Museum, Bangkok.

Dvaravati art - Dharmachakra 7 - 11 th century A. D. Found at Nakhon Pathom. Buddha image in Dvaravati mostly influenced by Gupta and Post-Gupta period and late one by Pala-sena period

INFLUENCE Early Buddhist temples are found, such as Beikthano in central Myanmar, with dates between the 1 st and the 5 th centuries. The Buddhist art of the Mons was especially influenced by the Indian art of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, and their mannerist style spread widely in Southeast Asia following the expansion of the Mon Empire between the 5 th and 8 th centuries.

MON PERIOD: 4 TH CENTURY– 1948 (M YANMAR) Mon kingdom, also called Hanthawaddy Kingdom, kingdom of the Mon people, was powerful in Burma from the 9 th - 11 th and from the 13 th - 16 th century and for a brief period in the mid-18 th century. The Mon migrated southward from western China and settled in the Chao Phraya River basin (of southern Thailand) in the 6 th century ad. There, they were strongly influenced by Khmer civilization. After the Mon moved westward into the Irrawaddy River delta of southern Myanmar in the ensuing centuries, they acquired Theravada Buddhism, their state religion, from Ceylon and South India, and they adopted the Indian Pali script. By 825 they had firmly established themselves in southern and southeastern Myanmar and founded the cities of Pegu and Thaton. The Mon are considered to be the most ancient ethnic group of the Suvarnabhumi region. In around the 8 th to 11 th centuries, the Mon Kingdom was the most influential of all the kingdoms of Myanmar having become the most developed and prosperous civilization in the region. It played an important role in the spread of Buddhism. The Mon are still centred in southeastern Myanmar, though their numbers are small compared to those of the ethnic Burmans.

BUDDHA IMAGES FROM THE MON PERIOD The Mon of these times used mainly alabaster, stone and bronze to make Buddha statues. Most Buddha images were seated in the folded -leg position. They are mostly shown in the Bhumisparsha mudra, with all five fingers of the right hand extended to touch the ground. A difference between the Mon gesture and the Burmese Bhumisparsha mudra was the length of the fingers, with the Mon gesture showing them much shorter. The most important differences between a Mon image and a Burmese Buddha image are the shape of the face and the way of casting. The metal used was brighter in comparison to the Burmese Buddha images.

Pagan Art 9 th- 13 th

Map Principality of Pagan at Anawrahta's accession in 1044

BURMA C. 1310

PAGAN EMPIRE UNDERANAWRAHTA; MINIMAL, IF ANY, CONTROL OVER ARAKAN; PAGAN'S SUZERAINTY OVER ARAKAN CONFIRMED FOUR DECADES AFTER HIS DEATH.

BAGAN PERIOD: 1044 - 1347 Bagan, also called Pagan, is one of the previous capitals of Burma. It was the capital of the Pagan-kingdom. This kingdom is also been called the First Burmese Kingdom. Even nowadays, Bagan still has the largest collection of Buddhist temples, pagodas, stupas and ruins. There are thousands of temples, many of them are still in relatively good condition. During the 1975 earthquake, many temples and stupas were damaged. Still now the consequences can be seen around Bagan area. Bagan is an important pilgrimage centre to Buddhist around the world. It is also listed as a nomination on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Site. Buddha images from the Bagan period are easy to recognise because of their round face. Their expression is mostly strict and not very friendly. The body is strong and muscular. A half-circle or triangle is shown in the top of the head (Ushnisha). The urna is frequently short. At most sitting Bagan Buddha images the dress (Sanghati) is worn around the left shoulder. At standing Buddha statues, the Sanghati is worn around both shoulders. Many Buddha images from the Bagan period have been made of bronze, iron, sandstone or wood but the most images are located in pagodas and have been made of bricks and plaster.

PAGAN Bagan [bəɡàɴ]; formerly Pagan) is an ancient city located in the Mandalay Region of Burma (Myanmar). From the 9 th to 13 th centuries, the city was the capital of the Kingdom of Pagan, the first kingdom to unify the regions that would later constitute modern Myanmar. During the kingdom's height between the 11 th and 13 th centuries, over 10, 000 Buddhist temples, pagodas and monasteries were constructed in the Bagan plains alone, of which the remains of over 2200 temples and pagodas still survive to the present day.

Bagan's prosperous economy built over 10, 000 temples between the 11 th and 13 th centuries.

Bagan or Pagan (pəgän`), ruined city, Mandalay div. , central Myanmar, on the Ayeyarwady River. Covering an area c. 40 sq mi (100 sq km), it is one of the great archaeological treasures of SE Asia and a holy place of pilgrimage. Founded c. 849, it became in the 11 th cent. the seat of King Anawratha, who, under the influence of the Mon civilization in the south, introduced the Mon civilization Theravada Buddhism into upper Myanmar, previously dominated by a Mahayana Buddhist sect. Under his rule and that of his descendants, Bagan was adorned with thousands of Buddhist shrines and temples, principally in stone and brick. Occupied by the Mongols in 1287, Bagan was sacked and burned by the Shans in 1299. The thousands of surviving temples, pagodas, and monasteries are thousands of surviving temples, pagodas, and monasteries massive and imposing structures, built with a knowledge of the true arch and showing strong Indian influence. In 1975 an earthquake damaged much of the architecture. A large restoration project was begun in the mid -1990 s.

ARCHITECTURE based on the stupa designs of the Andhra region

A Mandalay-style statue of Buddha image inside a temple at Bagan. This is a painted plaster statue, made on a brick base

AOMAR_(MYIN PYA GU) (ROW OF FIVE BUDDHA IMAGES) (LATE ANAWRAHTA PERIOD) (1070 -1075) (Myin Pya Gu) (Buddha Sheltered By Mucalinda Naga) (Late Anawrahta Period) (1070 -1075)

VOTIVE TABLET (MAUNG DI PAGODA) (EARLY ANAWRAHTA PERIOD) (1044 -1077) Standing Buddha Statue in Ananda Temple (ca. 1090) in Pagan

Bagan (Nat Hlaung Kyaug) (Standing Visnu) (11 th Century) Bagan (Nat Hlaung Kyaug) (Reclining Visnu) (11 th Century)

THE 11 TH AND 13 TH Later, thousands of Buddhist temples were built at Bagan, the capital, between the 11 th and 13 th centuries, and around 2, 000 of them are still standing. Beautiful jeweled statues of the Buddha are remaining from that period. Creation managed to continue despite the seizure of the city by the Mongols in 1287.

PYU PERIOD: 3 RD - 11 TH CENTURY The Pyu came originally from Tibet and settled in Upper-Burma. Chinese historical sources state that the Pyu controlled 18 kingdoms and describe them as a humane and peaceful people, and note the elegance and grace of Pyu life. War was virtually unknown amongst the Pyu. The empire came to an end by the Thai when they took the entire population into slavery. Buddha images from the Pyu period Buddha statues / images from this period are the oldest images of Burma. Mostly they are seated in the crossed-legged position, some with an outer robe (Sanghati) over both shoulders and some with only a civara (Jivorn) across the left shoulder. The foreheads of most Buddha images were marked with the Urna and at the top of the head a clear ushnisha. Most images at this time were made from thin cast bronze with a high silver and tin content. Mostly their faces do not look very friendly.

ARAKAN PERIOD: 575 - 1948 The ancient Arakan kingdom was located in the west of Burma in the now called Rakhine state. With four dynastic eras; Dhanyawaddy, Vesali, Laymro and Mrauk-U, Arakan is thought to have been an independent nation for over 5, 000 years until it was conquered by the Burmese (Ava) in 1784. At its peak the kingdom was taking tribute from as far away as Mushidabad, India in the west to the Mon capital of Pegu in the east and much of lower Burma. There are still hundreds of ancient pagodas, temples, shrines and Buddha statues located in Arakan, especially in the old capital, Mrauk-U. The most famous of these works is the Mahamuni Buddha Image but that is now in Mandalay in central Burma. Buddha images from the Arakan period The faces of the Buddha images from the Arakan period are strongly influenced by Pali art. In these images, the Buddha’s face was angled down and the fingers are in the Bhumisparsha mudra. Arakan Buddha images were mostly sitting in the crossed – legged position. Their crowned Buddha images (Jambupati) have a shorter crown wing and rope details. The most striking feature of Arakanese art is the larger size of the Ushnisha on top of the Buddha’s head.

Rakhine's ancient kingdoms are divided into four separate periods.

TOUNGOO PERIOD: 1347 - 1596 The Toungoo period is considered the golden age of Burma since the Toungoo Kingdom overpowered and absorbed almost all kingdoms in the whole region. The art of this period has been largely ignored since it followed the defeat of the Pagan Kingdom by the Chinese and the Tai Yai (Shan) and Burma was struggling to regain its independence. The Burmese art of that time mixed with Mon art and Tai Yai (Shan) art when King Tabeng Shwe Hti relocated his capital to the old Mon capital of Hansavadi. Then the influence of the Post Pala-Sena art of India, which has been a part of Burmese art for so long started to wane. Hansavadi was the capital of the Toungoo Dynasty for 50 years and during that period the art was considered as being a part of the Toungoo art period. Buddha images from the Toungoo period The faces of Buddha images / Buddha statues from this period became rounder with a more meditative look whilst the body became more muscular and tended to look plump. The size of the top of the head was increased and moved forward to the middle-top of the head. In the beginning of this period the halo was shaped like a lotus petal but this was later changed to the shape of a budding lotus flower and was moved forward as a crown over the Pra Ghetmala, portraying the Tai Yai (Shan) influence. The right hand was on the ground touching mudra (Bhumisparsha) with its fingers instead of touching the ground as in the past now seeming to be shorter and placed on the shin. The base of the image was shaped in the Burmese style, with thick layers of lotus petals. It should be clear from this that Toungoo art was very important to the development of art in Burma.

TOUNGOO (1486– 1539) PEGU (1539– 1599) AVA (1599– 1752)

AVA PERIOD, FROM THE 14 TH TO 16 TH During the Ava period, from the 14 th to 16 th centuries, the Ava (Innwa) style of the Buddha image was popular. In this style, the Buddha has large protruding ears, exaggerated eyebrows that curve upward, half-closed eyes, thin lips and a hair bun that is pointed at the top, usually depicted in the bhumisparsa mudra

AVA PERIOD

BURMESE INNWA MARBLE BUDDHA STATUE A Burmese Innwa Marble Buddha statue sitting with hand gesture in Bhumisparsa Mudra. Innwa formerly known as (Ava) is located on an island between the Ayeyarwady and the Myitnge Rivers approximately 45 minutes drive south of Mandalay. Throughout the history of Innwa or Ava period, it was continually destroyed and rebuilt many times. In 1839 it was completely destroyed by several earthquakes, and to this day only traces of its former glory remain.

Ava (also known as Innwa or Ratanapura - City of Gems), official name was Ratanapura (City of Gems) Ava (also known as Innwa or Ratanapura - City of Gems), situated just to the south of Amarapura on the Ayeyarwady River and located about 15 km south of Mandalay, was founded by King Thado Minpya in 1364 A. D. , the youngest king at the age of 19 years ever to build a capital. At first the city was timber-walled and a year later it was brick-walled. The first Ava period with a line of 20 kings spanned 233 years, and the second Ava period with ten kings lasted over 150 years making Ava the uninterrupted longest serving capital in history. It was also briefly made capital twice in the last 19 th century Konbaung dynasty when it was exposed and vulnerable to the encroachment of Western colonial expansion. In 1597 A. D. , King Nyaungyan made Ava a capital for the second time, and a new golden palace was again built by his younger son King Tharlun, the donor of the huge bulbous pagoda Kaungmudaw near Sagaing. In 1752, Ava was invaded and destroyed by Mon from the South. This old capital is now not more than a small town or a large village.

BUDDHA IMAGES FROM THE AVA PERIOD are recognizable by the large forehead. The face was oval shaped with a pointed chin. The eyebrows were curved like human eyebrows. The eyes glazed downwards in the stat of meditation, the bridge of the nose was straight and low. The lips were small and little pointed forward with a clear cleft above the upper lip. The torso was well-built similar to the Toungoo style. The Buddha wore a plain flap across the left shoulder with the robe draped over the shoulder. In the Ava Art period, various kinds of material were used to create Buddha images mostly depending on were the artisans that created them were living. Those commonly employed were precious wood, bronze with a high copper content and marble painted with lacquer, and then adorned with gold. Buddha images fashioned in sandstone were very rare.

AMARAPURA PERIOD: 1789 - 1853 Situated about 11 kilometres south of Mandalay, Amarapura is an ancient capital of the Konbaung Dynasty. The modern town of Amarapura is often referred to as Taungmyo, "the Southern City", to distinguish it from Mandalay, the northern city. The old name "Amarapura" means "the City of Immortality". Amarapura was founded by King Bodawpaya in 1783. In 1823, King Bagyidaw moved the capital city to Inwa and in 1841 Amarapura again became the capital. In 1857, King Mindon decided to make Mandalay the capital and the change over was completed in 1860. There are several places of interest in this ancient city which was also the site for the first British Embassy in Myanmar in 1795 and the largest teak wood 1. 2 km long U Bein Wooden Bridge built over the seasonal Taung Thaman lake in 1786. Its royal palace, great temples, and fortifications are now in ruins but the pagodas, temples and monasteries remain. The Mahagandayon Monastery in Amarapura is the religious centre, where over 700 monks attend to their religious duties.

Buddha images / statues from this period are called “Pra Nong” in Thailand. In actual fact the Amarapura style is a distinctive form of Burmese art which has never before been defined. Through King Bodawpaya’s demand that the Arakanese sacred image, the Mahamuni Buddha be brought to and installed in the royal shrine at Amarapura, his newly founded capital the legacy of Arakan is prominent during this period. The Mahamuni Buddha became the most sacred image of Burma and its muscular torse influenced the Buddha images that were made during this period. Crown Buddha images (Jambupati) and those made from metal or paper mache / lacquerware were rare in Amarapura art. Instead, images were usually made of wood and gilded with gold leaf, covered with red lacquer and painted with red colour and decorated with white glass inlays. The face, was round a bit plump and resembled that of the Mahamuni Buddha, was turned downwards. A distinctive feature of these Buddha images was the circular pattern on the robe, shins and knees. BUDDHA IMAGES FROM THE AMARAPURA PERIOD

SHAN (TAI YAI) PERIOD: 1315 – 1948 believed to have migrated from Yunnan in China. The Shan, who call themselves Tai, form one section of the large Tai ethnic group which is now believed to have spread from Southeast China through Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Burma and Assam. Shan legends indicate that they were already in the part of Burma which they still inhabit as early as the mid 11 th century. The word “Shan” comes from the same root as Siam; in Bagan they were known as the Syam. Buddha images from the Shan period Although there is evidence of earlier occupation, the first Shan Buddha images that has been found seem to date back only to the 17 th century. They have triangular faces with a broad forehead, eyebrows arched high over narrowly opened eyes, a pointed nose with triangular nostrils, pursed thin lips, large and elongated ears, and short necks. They are often seated in Vajrasana with hands in Bhumisparsha mudra. Seventeenth century Buddha statues may be placed on high, wasted lotus thrones and wear immensely tall crowns with flamboyant ear flanges.

MANDALAY PERIOD: 1853 - 1948 Mandalay was considered the center of the Buddhist universe in Myanmar. King Mindon moved the capital from Amarapura to this new site and called it the city of Mandalay. Tradition maintains that Gautama Buddha visited the sacred peak of Mandalay Hill with his disciple Ananda, and proclaimed that on the 2400 th anniversary of his death, a metropolis of Buddhist learning would be founded on the plain below the hill. The political center of this new city had the perfect geometrical form of a Buddhist Mandala, for which the city was named, Mandalay. The Mandalay period ends at the time when the Burmese gained its independence from the British. Buddha images from the Mandalay period Youthful, sweet-faced image of the Buddha wearing a robe elaborately folded, edged and decorated often with inset mirror glass, has attained great popularity and become known as the ”Mandalay Buddha”. For many people, it came to epitomize the Burmese representation of the Buddha. Mandalay Buddha statues often have a broad band across the forehead. The hair hugs the head in tight curls and covers a broad prominent ushnisha. There is no lotus finial above. The images are frequently seated in the Bhumisparsa mudra and the left lying in the lap. The uttarasanga is worm in the open mode and the sanghati is folded decoratively on the left shoulder. Wood, alabaster and bronze have been the favoured materials. Many Buddha images are lacquered and gilded, including the face and body. Most standing Buddha images wear the uttarasanga in the closed mode, covering the arms and chest and held at each side of the lower body by downward-stretched hands. Below, at its lower centre, appears the antaravasaka. The sanghati flows in multitudinous folds from the left shoulder. In his right hand the Buddha holds the medicinal myrobalan fruit.

During the Konbaung dynasty, at the end of the 18 th century, � the Mandalay style of the Buddha image emerged, a style that remains popular to this day. There was a marked departure from the Innwa style, and the Buddha's face is much more natural, fleshy, with naturally-slanted eyebrows, slightly slanted eyes, thicker lips, and a round hair bun at the top. Buddha images in this style can be found reclining, standing or sitting. Mandalay-style Buddhas wear flowing, draped robes. Another common style of Buddha images is the Shan style, from the Shan people, who inhabit the highlands of Myanmar. � In this style, the Buddha is depicted with angular features, a large and prominently pointed nose, a hair bun tied similar to Thai styles, and a small, thin mouth.

Khmer Art 8 th-13 th

KHMER EMPIRE: 960 Khmer Empire 1200

PORTRAIT OF JAYAVARMAN VII ON DISPLAY AT MUSEE GUIMET, PARIS

Between the 3 rd and 6 th centuries Cambodia was the center of the Funan kingdom, which expanded into Burma and as far south as Malaysia � Its influence seems to have been essentially political, most of the cultural influence coming directly from India. � Later, from the 9 th to 13 th centuries, � the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu Khmer Empire dominated vast parts of the Southeast Asian peninsula, and its influence was foremost in the development of Buddhist art in the region. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand. Angkor was at the center of this development, with a Buddhist temple complex and urban organization able to support around 1 million urban dwellers. A great deal of Cambodian Buddhist sculpture is preserved at Angkor; however, organized looting has had a heavy impact on many sites around the country. Often, Khmer art manages to express intense spirituality through divinely beaming expressions, in spite of spare features and slender lines.

BODHISATTVA LOKESVARA, CAMBODIA 12 TH CENTURY.

Gate into Angkor Thom

KHMER BUDDHA IMAGE

Lop Buri art 7 th-13 th

Map

LOPBURI Lavo in Chinese records In 6 th century, Lavo sent tribute to the Chinese emperor during the Tang Dynasty (618– 907), and another during the Song Dynasty (960– 1279). The Tang Chronicles refer to Lavo and Dvaravati as Tou-ho-lo. The diary of the monk Xuanzang, dating from the same period (629– 645), also mentions the region, referring to it as Tou-lo-po-ti. Lavo sent tributes to Song dynasty twice, in 1115 and 1155. The Song Chronicles mention Lavo at that time as Lo Hu. Marco Polo's writings also refer to Lavo, as Locak. It was described as being located on the hinterland of Chao Phraya basin, a place too far to be subject to attack by the Kublai Khan's army of Yuan (1271– 1368). Khmer era In 10 th century when it was known as Lavodayapura (Khmer language). Lavo was subordinate to Khmer empire that rapid rise to prominence by the migration of Kambojas from the south India, therefore Lavo often be mentioned as Kambojarat (rat – kingdom) in some old Thai records. (Kambojas, in this case, the Khmers of Cambodia) came with the influence of their art and culture, in the 15 th to 16 th centuries. The new constructions were made by the rocks onto the ruined Dvaravati holy place that made by the bricks without mortar, therefore the oldest ruins that can now be found in Lopburi always be the Khmer style on the Dvaravati foundation.

PRANG SAM YOT, THE KHMER TEMPLE IN LOPBURI

BUDDHA WITH THE POSTURE OFG IVING INSTRUCTION, TEACHING (BOTH HANDS). LOPBURI PERIOD, IMAGE CAST AND ENLARGED FROM AN ANCIENT MODEL. PRESENTLY AT WAT BENCHAMABOPHIT, BANGKOK

Naga-Protected Buddha The finial was formed in the shape of a lotus bud or an orb and the Buddha's robe would feature a distinct curvature at the waist. Images were usually carved in the meditation posture, seated with folded legs and the Naga heads forming a protective taper above the Buddha's head. Naga-Protected Buddha in Royal Attire The finial expression is rather stern. The diadem featured a small band inserted in the centre and the petals in the lotus base sometimes included downturned lotus petals.

Champa Art 8 th-13 th

Indrapura (875– 978) Vijaya (978– 1485) Panduranga (1485 – 1832)

5 TH–EARLY 19 TH CENTURY The seafaring people of Champa inhabited the central coast of Viet Nam between the fifth and the early nineteenth centuries. The region is divided by numerous rivers, in turn often separated by mountains. As a result, the Cham were not a unified kingdom, but a loosely knit series of polities whose power waxed and waned depending on the efficacy of their current ruler. Since maritime trade was the primary source of income for the Cham, their ports became entrepot for the exchange of both goods and ideas. Though much of their trade was with the Chinese—like other Southeast Asian peoples, they provided coveted forest goods to the Chinese—Indian religion and ideas of statecraft were important elements of Cham culture. Early Cham inscriptions are in Sanskrit, and traces of Indian influence can be seen in the impressive fifth- through fifteenth-century sculptures and relief carvings on view in this section of the exhibition, which were created for Cham Hindu and Buddhist structures. Many of these structures were dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva and built on hilltops, a probable reference to Shiva’s role as Lord of the Mountain. Although the Cham were known for their bricklaying skills and some decor was carved into the brick, stone sculpture was the major source of temple adornment; the tympana over doorways and windows were favored surfaces for the depiction of gods and goddesses.

PERIODS AND STYLES OF CHAM ART Scholars agree that it is possible to analyze the art of Champa in terms of distinct "styles" typical for various historical periods and different locations. Several have attempted through their study to set down a classification of historical styles. Perhaps the most influential of these attempts are those of the French scholars Philippe Stern (The Art of Champa (formerly Annam) and its Evolution, 1942) and Jean Boisselier (Statuary of Champa, 1963). styles and sub-styles: My Son E 1 (7 th to 8 th century) Dong Duong (9 th to 10 th century) My Son A 1 (10 th century) Khuong My (first half of 10 th century) Tra Kieu (second half of 10 th century) Chanh Lo (end of 10 th century to mid-11 th century) Thap Mam (11 th to 14 th century) Each style is named after a place in Vietnam at which works exemplative of that style have been found.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHAM ART FROM ITS EARLY HISTORY TO THE DOWNFALL OF THE KINGDOM Early Period (Mid 7 th - Mid 9 th Century) The most characteristic of the early Cham art is the collection of sculptures from My Son (outside of Da Nang), the most venerated temples in ancient Champa. This group of sculptures marked the golden age for Cham culture, even if this culture was influenced by pre-Angkorian Khmer art. A century later, when the leadership of Champa passed to the southern provinces, artistic activity seems to have declined. It was at about this time that the Indonesian attacked on the peninsula stimulated the growth of Buddhism in Champa and revitalized its iconography. The Period of Indrapura (Mid 9 th to End of 10 th Century) Around the year 850, power once again passed to the northern provinces and for a century and a half Indrapuri (Dong Duong in present Quang Nam province) was the capital of the Cham kingdom. Though typified by two quite opposite tendencies, the period was one of intense artistic activity. As early as 875, the founding of the great Mahayana (Dai Thua) Bhuddist complex at Dong Duong led to the embellishment of a vigorous style that was much more concerned with grandeur Duong than with human beauty, and yet welded together with a surprising degree of originality the most varied borrowings from Indonesia and China. A quarter of a century later, with the decline of Buddhism, sculpture became progressively more humane and decoration more delicate (Khuong My). When, towards the middle of the 10 th century, architecture achieved a classical balance (My Son, group A), sculpture moved into its second golden age with the style of My Son A 1 and Tra Kieu which shows a strong Indonesian influence. By the end of the 10 th century, when the kingdom engaged in hostilities with a now independent Viet Nam, its art had already lost many of its finest qualities, especially with regard to the rendering of the human figure.

A 9 th-century sandstone statue shows Tara with a small figure of Amitabha seated in her hair above the forehead.

The Period of Vijaya (11 th to End of 15 th Century) As result of attacks by Vietnamese forces, Indrapura, which lay to far to the north, was evacuated in favor of Vijaya (Cha Ban in the present Qui Nhon city), a capital further to the south. Even though the kingdom was threatened from all sides, Vijaya was to witness much artistic activity during the 11 th and 12 th centuries. Growing tension between Khmer (Cambodia) and Champa led to the introduction of some new borrowings from the Khmer art; however the worsening of political relations culminated in the occupation of Champa by forces from Angkor (1181 to 1220). All Cham artistic activity ceased, and the kingdom was to emerge much the poorer from the experience. Once set in motion, the decline was accelerated by the invincible onslaught of Viet Nam, and then, at the end of 13 th century, by the Mongol threat. The few buildings erected in the 15 th century in the less harassed regions are of heavier proportions and became progressively less and less ornamented (Po Klong Garai). Late Period (After 1471) This period began with the capture of Champa's capital of Vijaya by the Vietnamese. Po Ro Me temple, probably built in the 16 th century, was the last sanctuary of the traditional type. Those that followed it (the bumongs of hybrid construction) were to be influenced by Vietnamese architecture. Religious images became mere steles (kut) which are characterized by the progressive effacement of the human physiognomy, until only attributes of rank (especially head-dresses) remains as a reminder of them. Yet although these sculptures reveal a continuos decline, they do manage to retain something of the profound originality that is the only truly constant feature of the art of Champa.

Thanks