BRUTUS 1 Interpreted in Laymans terms 1 ST

BRUTUS #1 Interpreted in Layman’s terms

1 ST – 2 ND PARAGRAPH § To the Citizens of the State of New-York. § When the public is called to investigate and decide upon a question in which not only the present members of the community are deeply interested, but upon which the happiness and misery of generations yet unborn is in great measure suspended, the benevolent mind cannot help feeling itself peculiarly interested in the result. § In this situation, I trust the feeble efforts of an individual, to lead the minds of the people to a wise and prudent determination, cannot fail of being acceptable to the candid and dispassionate part of the community. Encouraged by this consideration, I have been induced to offer my thoughts upon the present important crisis of our public affairs.

1 ST – 2 ND PARAGRAPH TO THE CITIZENS OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK (MELANCTON SMITH, ROBERT YATES, OR JOHN WILLIAMS) §The question of whether or not to adopt this New Constitution with its new strong national gov’t. , is not only of serious interest to our present society, but will impact the happiness or misery of future generations §With that being said, I am confident that smart Americans will come to the right decision as to whether or not to ratify this new Constitution §It is because of this, that I have felt it necessary to offer my thoughts on this very important decision that we are about to make

3 RD PARAGRAPH § Perhaps this country never saw so critical a period in their political concerns. We have felt the feebleness of the ties by which these United-States are held together, and the want of sufficient energy in our present confederation, to manage, in some instances, our general concerns. Various expedients have been proposed to remedy these evils, but none have succeeded. At length a Convention of the states has been assembled, they have formed a constitution which will now, probably, be submitted to the people to ratify or reject, who are the fountain of all power, to whom alone it of right belongs to make or unmake constitutions, or forms of government, at their pleasure. The most important question that was ever proposed to your decision, or to the decision of any people under heaven, is before you, and you are to decide upon it by men of your own election, chosen specially for this purpose. If the constitution, offered to [your acceptance], be a wise one, calculated to preserve the invaluable blessings of liberty, to secure the inestimable rights of mankind, and promote human happiness, then, if you accept it, you will lay a lasting foundation of happiness for millions yet unborn; generations to come will rise up and call you blessed. You may rejoice in the prospects of this vast extended continent becoming filled with freemen, who will assert the dignity of human nature. You may solace yourselves with the idea, that society, in this favoured land, will fast advance to the highest point of perfection; the human mind will expand in knowledge and virtue, and the golden age be, in some measure, realised. But if, on the other hand, this form of government contains principles that will lead to the subversion of liberty — if it tends to establish a despotism, or, what is worse, a tyrannic aristocracy; then, if you adopt it, this only remaining assylum for liberty will be [shut] up, and posterity will execrate your memory.

3 RD PARAGRAPH § We are at the most critical juncture in our political history § As we have recently experienced some problems with our young Confederation, a Convention has been called to create a new Constitution. This Convention has all the power to control our destiny, yet it thankfully will be up to the states to ratify § Thus, this ultimate decision rests upon you as you decide who will serve at these special state ratifying conventions § If this Constitution proves to be a wise move, you will have secured the lasting foundation for the happiness of millions of Americans now & long into the future. § However, if this Constitution proves to be an unwise move, you will have helped to establish a despotism, or worse yet, a powerful elite gov’t. that will have destroyed liberty forever

4 TH PARAGRAPH § Momentous then is the question you have to determine, and you are called upon by every motive which should influence a noble and virtuous mind, to examine it well, and to make up a wise judgment. It is insisted, indeed, that this constitution must be received, be it ever so imperfect. If it has its defects, it is said, they can be best amended when they are experienced. But remember, when the people once part with power, they can seldom or never resume it again but by force. Many instances can be produced in which the people have voluntarily increased the powers of their rulers; but few, if any, in which rulers have willingly abridged their authority. This is a sufficient reason to induce you to be careful, in the first instance, how you deposit the powers of government.

4 TH PARAGRAPH § Did I mention how important this decision is that lie before you § The Federalists will have you believe that you must ratify this Constitution, even if it is imperfect, because they will have you believe that we can improve upon this strong new national gov’t. on the fly § But remember, once you give up power to a gov’t. , you can seldom, if ever, get it back, unless you want another revolution § Rarely, if ever, are there instances in the history of man, where gov’t. has willingly given back their power/authority to the people § With this said, it is imperative and critically important for you to be very careful with the decision before you!

5 TH - 7 TH PARAGRAPH § With these few introductory remarks I shall proceed to a consideration of this constitution: § The first question that presents itself on the subject is, whether a confederated government be the best for the United States or not? Or in other words, whether the thirteen United States should be reduced to one great republic, governed by one legislature, and under the direction of one executive and judicial; or whether they should continue thirteen confederated republics, under the direction and controul of a supreme federal head for certain defined national purposes only? § This enquiry is important, because, although the government reported by the convention does not go to a perfect and entire consolidation, yet it approaches so near to it, that it must, if executed, certainly and infallibly terminate in it.

5 TH - 7 TH PARAGRAPH §Let me now get into where I stand on this Constitution §It comes down to this… §Should our 13 United States be reduced to one great republic, governed by one legislature, & under the direction of one executive & one judicial? § Or should they continue as 13 Confederated Republics, under the direction & control of a national gov’t. for only certain defined national purposes? § This is important because the Constitutional Convention Delegates have stated that this new Constitution will not totally consolidate power to a national gov’t. , but it seems to come so awfully close that the future autonomy & independence of our state governments is at risk

8 TH PARAGRAPH This government is to possess absolute and uncontroulable power, legislative, executive and judicial, with respect to every object to which it extends, for by the last clause of section 8 th, article Ist, it is declared “that the Congress shall have power to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution, in the government of the United States; or in any department or office thereof. ” And by the 6 th article, it is declared “that this constitution, and the laws of the United States, which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and the treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the constitution, or law of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. ” It appears from these articles that there is no need of any intervention of the state governments, between the Congress and the people, to execute any one power vested in the general government, and that the constitution and laws of every state are nullified and declared void, so far as they are or shall be inconsistent with this constitution, or the laws made in pursuance of it, or with treaties made under the authority of the United States. — The government then, so far as it extends, is a complete one, and not a confederation. It is as much one complete government as that of New-York or Massachusetts, has as absolute and perfect powers to make and execute all laws, to appoint officers, institute courts, declare offences, and annex penalties, with respect to every object to which it extends, as any other in the world. So far therefore as its powers reach, all ideas of confederation are given up and lost. It is true this government is limited to certain objects, or to speak more properly, some small degree of power is still left to the states, but a little attention to the powers vested in the general government, will convince every candid man, that if it is capable of being executed, all that is reserved for the individual states must very soon be annihilated, except so far as they are barely necessary to the organization of the general government. The powers of the general legislature extend to every case that is of the least importance — there is nothing valuable to human nature, nothing dear to freemen, but what is within its power. It has authority to make laws which will affect the lives, the liberty, and property of every man in the United States; nor can the constitution or laws of any state, in any way prevent or impede the full and complete execution of every power given. The legislative power is competent to lay taxes, duties, imposts, and excises; — there is no limitation to this power, unless it be said that the clause which directs the use to which those taxes, and duties shall be applied, may be said to be a limitation; but this is no restriction of the power at all, for by this clause they are to be applied to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States; but the legislature have authority to contract debts at their discretion; they are the sole judges of what is necessary to provide for the common defence, and they only are to determine what is for the general welfare: this power therefore is neither more nor less, than a power to lay and collect taxes, imposts, and excises, at their pleasure; not only the power to lay taxes unlimited, as to the amount they may require, but it is perfect and absolute to raise them in any mode they please. No state legislature, or any power in the state governments, have any more to do in carrying this into effect, than the authority of one state has to do with that of another. In the business therefore of laying and collecting taxes, the idea of confederation is totally lost, and that of one entire republic is embraced. It is proper here to remark, that the authority to lay and collect taxes is the most important of any power that can be granted; it connects with it almost all other powers, or at least will in process of time draw all other after it; it is the great mean of protection, security, and defence, in a good government, and the great engine of oppression and tyranny in a bad one. This cannot fail of being the case, if we consider the contracted limits which are set by this constitution, to the late governments, on this article of raising money. No state can emit paper money — lay any duties, or imposts, on imports, or exports, but by consent of the Congress; and then the net produce shall be for the benefit of the United States. The only mean therefore left, for any state to support its government and discharge its debts, is by direct taxation; and the United States have also power to lay and collect taxes, in any way they please. Every one who has thought on the subject, must be convinced that but small sums of money can be collected in any country, by direct taxe[s], when the foederal government begins to exercise the right of taxation in all its parts, the legislatures of the several states will find it impossible to raise monies to support their governments. Without money they cannot be supported, and they must dwindle away, and, as before observed, their powers absorbed in that of the general government.

8 TH PARAGRAPH §Article 1 (s. 8) clause 18 (Necessary & Proper Clause/Elastic Clause) will give this new national gov’t. absolute & uncontrollable power §Congress shall have power to make all laws which shall be necessary & proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers… §Article 6 states that the national gov’t. shall be the supreme law of the land & that state judges shall be bound by the Constitution & that any state law conflicting with a national law will have to give way

8 TH PARAGRAPH §It appears from this Constitution that state governments need not intervene & that the state laws will become obsolete (null & void) §Congress shall have power to make all laws which shall be necessary & proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers… §Say ‘goodbye’ to our Confederation if we adopt this new form of gov’t. §Even if it leaves some small powers to the states, it will eventually take those away as well §For our national legislature has power over every minute aspect of our lives

8 TH PARAGRAPH §This national legislature has the power to affect our lives, liberty, & property, & there is not one state gov’t. that can do anything about it! §Think about it, it can lay/collect taxes at will, are the sole judges as to decide how to provide for our common defense and what is important for our general welfare §Let us not overlook the national government’s power to lay/collect taxes, for it is the most important of all powers, & all other powers derive from it §More importantly, this power to lay/collect taxes can be an ultimate weapon in the hands of evil, oppressive men

8 TH PARAGRAPH §This Constitution also prevents any state from printing its own $, or post any taxes on imports or exports §Thus, the only means by which any state can support its own level of gov’t. is by direct taxation (& even that is overshadowed by the nat’l. gov’ts ability to lay/collect taxes as it pleases) §Hence, without the ability to adequately raise $, the state governments will dwindle away & be swallowed up whole by this new, & powerful national gov’t.

9 TH PARAGRAPH §It might be here shewn, that the power in the federal legislative, to raise and support armies at pleasure, as well in peace as in war, and their controul over the militia, tend, not only to a consolidation of the government, but the destruction of liberty. — I shall not, however, dwell upon these, as a few observations upon the judicial power of this government, in addition to the preceding, will fully evince the truth of the position.

9 TH PARAGRAPH §Oh yeah, let’s not forget that the nat’l. gov’ts. power to raise/support armies at will & their control over the state militia not only illustrates the consolidation of power in the hands of the few, but the destruction of liberty, as well!

10 TH PARAGRAPH § The judicial power of the United States is to be vested in a supreme court, and in such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The powers of these courts are very extensive; their jurisdiction comprehends all civil causes, except such as arise between citizens of the same state; and it extends to all cases in law and equity arising under the constitution. One inferior court must be established, I presume, in each state at least, with the necessary executive officers appendant thereto. It is easy to see, that in the common course of things, these courts will eclipse the dignity, and take away from the respectability, of the state courts. These courts will be, in themselves, totally independent of the states, deriving their authority from the United States, and receiving from them fixed salaries; and in the course of human events it is to be expected, that they will swallow up all the powers of the courts in the respective states.

10 TH PARAGRAPH §When you examine Article 3, you find that the powers of our federal judicial branch (SCOTUS & lower federal courts) are very extensive/far-reaching, whose jurisdiction extends to all civil cases between citizens of several states & any issues falling under the jurisdiction of the Constitution §This means that at least 1 federal court (if not more) will be established in each state, thus taking away the dignity/respectability of the state courts, & eventually taking away all their powers as well!

11 TH PARAGRAPH § How far the clause in the 8 th section of the Ist article may operate to do away all idea of confederated states, and to effect an entire consolidation of the whole into one general government, it is impossible to say. The powers given by this article are very general and comprehensive, and it may receive a construction to justify the passing almost any law. A power to make all laws, which shall be necessary and proper, for carrying into execution, all powers vested by the constitution in the government of the United States, or any department or officer thereof, is a power very comprehensive and definite, and may, for ought I know, be exercised in a such manner as entirely to abolish the state legislatures. Suppose the legislature of a state should pass a law to raise money to support their government and pay the state debt, may the Congress repeal this law, because it may prevent the collection of a tax which they may think proper and necessary to lay, to provide for the general welfare of the United States? For all laws made, in pursuance of this constitution, are the supreme lay of the land, and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the constitution or laws of the different states to the contrary notwithstanding. — By such a law, the government of a particular state might be overturned at one stroke, and thereby be deprived of every means of its support.

11 TH PARAGRAPH §Article 1 (s. 8) gives our national Congress unlimited powers & they are written so vaguely, that it is not farfetched to assume that our national gov’t. will only increase its scope of power within this section (lay/collect taxes, declare war, regulate interstate commerce, maintain an army, etc. ) §Need I remind you that clause 18 in Article 1 (s. 8) gives Congress the power to ‘make any additional laws that it sees fit, to help it carry out the powers given to it in Article 1 (s. 8) §If these 2 arguments are not asking for abuse of power, I don’t know what is!

11 TH PARAGRAPH §Let’s take a look at a hypothetical scenario that could play out as a result of this ‘Necessary & Proper Clause’ §Suppose a state gov’t. passes a law to raise $ to support itself & pay off its debt. Might the national Congress repeal this law, using Article 1 (s. 8) clause 18 (Elastic Clause), because it may prevent the collection of a national tax to provide for the ‘general welfare of the U. S. ’? §This will deprive all state governments of their ability to survive through taxation!

12 TH PARAGRAPH § It is not meant, by stating this case, to insinuate that the constitution would warrant a law of this kind; or unnecessarily to alarm the fears of the people, by suggesting, that the federal legislature would be more likely to pass the limits assigned them by the constitution, than that of an individual state, further than they are less responsible to the people. But what is meant is, that the legislature of the United States are vested with the great and uncontroulable powers, of laying and collecting taxes, duties, imposts, and excises; of regulating trade, raising and supporting armies, organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, instituting courts, and other general powers. And are by this clause invested with the power of making all laws, proper and necessary, for carrying all these into execution; and they may so exercise this power as entirely to annihilate all the state governments, and reduce this country to one single government. And if they may do it, it is pretty certain they will; for it will be found that the power retained by individual states, small as it is, will be a clog upon the wheels of the government of the United States; the latter therefore will be naturally inclined to remove it out of the way. Besides, it is a truth confirmed by the unerring experience of ages, that every man, and every body of men, invested with power, are ever disposed to increase it, and to acquire a superiority over every thing that stands in their way. This disposition, which is implanted in human nature, will operate in the federal legislature to lessen and ultimately to subvert the state authority, and having such advantages, will most certainly succeed, if the federal government succeeds at all. It must be very evident then, that what this constitution wants of being a complete consolidation of the several parts of the union into one complete government, possessed of perfect legislative, judicial, and executive powers, to all intents and purposes, it will necessarily acquire in its exercise and operation.

12 TH PARAGRAPH § I’m not saying that this new Constitution would allow for this, but what I am saying is that this new Constitution has created the opportunity for great & uncontrollable powers (laying/collecting taxes, regulating trade, raising/supporting an army, controlling the state militia, creating/maintaining federal courts, etc. ) not to mention the end-all-be-all 18 th clause (elastic) which gives our Congress the power to create any additional powers that they see fit § All with the possibility of destroying our state gov’ts. § This may very well happen as even a common man can appreciate that state gov’t. powers, by virtue of design, naturally take away power from the national gov’t. & it seems very likely that it will use this Elastic clause to strip away that state power (this is human nature & history has shown this)

13 TH PARAGRAPH §Let us now proceed to enquire, as I at first proposed, whether it be best the thirteen United States should be reduced to one great republic, or not? It is here taken for granted, that all agree in this, that whatever government we adopt, it ought to be a free one; that it should be so framed as to secure the liberty of the citizens of America, and such an one as to admit of a full, fair, and equal representation of the people. The question then will be, whether a government thus constituted, and founded on such principles, is practicable, and can be exercised over the whole United States, reduced into one state?

13 TH PARAGRAPH §Let’s go back to the original question as to whether or not we should adopt this new Constitution or protect our states’ autonomy (independence) §Whatever form we choose, it should be a ‘free one’ that protects our liberty & will fully, fairly, equally represent the wishes of the American people §Can we accomplish this under the New Constitution with a strong national gov’t. ?

14 TH PARAGRAPH § If respect is to be paid to the opinion of the greatest and wisest men who have ever thought or wrote on the science of government, we shall be constrained to conclude, that a free republic cannot succeed over a country of such immense extent, containing such a number of inhabitants, and these encreasing in such rapid progression as that of the whole United States. Among the many illustrious authorities which might be produced to this point, I shall content myself with quoting only two. The one is the baron de Montesquieu, spirit of laws, chap. xvi. vol. I [book VIII]. “It is natural to a republic to have only a small territory, otherwise it cannot long subsist. In a large republic there are men of large fortunes, and consequently of less moderation; there are trusts too great to be placed in any single subject; he has interest of his own; he soon begins to think that he may be happy, great and glorious, by oppressing his fellow citizens; and that he may raise himself to grandeur on the ruins of his country. In a large republic, the public good is sacrificed to a thousand views; it is subordinate to exceptions, and depends on accidents. In a small one, the interest of the public is easier perceived, better understood, and more within the reach of every citizen; abuses are of less extent, and of course are less protected. ” Of the same opinion is the marquis Beccarari.

14 TH PARAGRAPH § All we need to do is look at some of our most respected Enlightened Thinkers who have concluded that a free republic can’t succeed over a country of such immense size § Montesquieu – it is natural for a republic to have only a small territory, otherwise it can’t long subsist. In a large republic, there are men of large fortunes, & consequently of less moderation; there are trusts too great to be placed in any single subject; he has interest of his own; he soon begins to think that he may be happy, great & glorious, by oppressing his fellow citizens; & that he may raise himself to grandeur on the ruins of his country. In a large republic, the public good is sacrificed to a thousand views; it is subordinate to exceptions, & it depends on accidents. In a small one, the interest of the public is easier perceived, better understood, & more within the reach of every citizen; abuses are of less extent, & of course are less protected § Marquis Beccarari, another Enlightened Thinker, holds similar views § This is Brutus #1’s first hint at the ‘Evils of Faction’

15 TH PARAGRAPH §History furnishes no example of a free republic, any thing like the extent of the United States. The Grecian republics were of small extent; so also was that of the Romans. Both of these, it is true, in process of time, extended their conquests over large territories of country; and the consequence was, that their governments were changed from that of free governments to those of the most tyrannical that ever existed in the world.

15 TH PARAGRAPH §If these Enlightened Thinkers don’t convince you, all you need to do is look at history to get the same lesson §Republics worked in Ancient Greece & Ancient Rome when their size was small; when both civilizations/governments grew exponentially in size, their republics failed & became some of the most tyrannical that ever existed in World History (another hint at the ’Evils of Faction’)

16 TH PARAGRAPH § Not only the opinion of the greatest men, and the experience of mankind, are against the idea of an extensive republic, but a variety of reasons may be drawn from the reason and nature of things, against it. In every government, the will of the sovereign is the law. In despotic governments, the supreme authority being lodged in one, his will is law, and can be as easily expressed to a large extensive territory as to a small one. In a pure democracy the people are the sovereign, and their will is declared by themselves; for this purpose they must all come together to deliberate, and decide. This kind of government cannot be exercised, therefore, over a country of any considerable extent; it must be confined to a single city, or at least limited to such bounds as that the people can conveniently assemble, be able to debate, understand the subject submitted to them, and declare their opinion concerning it.

16 TH PARAGRAPH §If I still haven’t got your attention, we only need to look at the nature of things… §In a despot or tyrannt, supreme authority is centered around 1 person or group (& this can be obtained in both a large & small republic) §Another hint at the ‘Evils of Faction’ §In a pure democracy, where people are the supreme authority, they must come together & deliberate/steer the gov’t. (which can only really be done in a small republic) §A counter hint at the benefits of a small gov’t. being best suited to provide for a participatory democracy

17 TH - 18 TH PARAGRAPH § In a free republic, although all laws are derived from the consent of the people, yet the people do not declare their consent by themselves in person, but by representatives, chosen by them, who are supposed to know the minds of their constituents, and to be possessed of integrity to declare this mind. In every free government, the people must give their assent to the laws by which they are governed. This is the true criterion between a free government and an arbitrary one. The former are ruled by the will of the whole, expressed in any manner they may agree upon; the latter by the will of one, or a few. If the people are to give their assent to the laws, by persons chosen and appointed by them, the manner of the choice and the number chosen, must be such, as to possess, be disposed, and consequently qualified to declare the sentiments of the people; for if they do not know, or are not disposed to speak the sentiments of the people, the people do not govern, but the sovereignty is in a few. Now, in a large extended country, it is impossible to have a representation, possessing the sentiments, and of integrity, to declare the minds of the people, without having it so numerous and unwieldly, as to be subject in great measure to the inconveniency of a democratic government. § The territory of the United States is of vast extent; it now contains near three millions of souls, and is capable of containing much more than ten times that number. Is it practicable for a country, so large and so numerous as they will soon become, to elect a representation, that will speak their sentiments, without their becoming so numerous as to be incapable of transacting public business? It certainly is not.

17 TH - 18 TH PARAGRAPH § In a true republic, people vote for elected officials who will carry out the peoples’ wishes § In order for elected officials to truly/accurately carry out the peoples’ wishes, they must know & understand their wishes § This can only be accomplished in a small republic like that of the states, where elected officials will be more accountable & receptive to the needs of the people from their state, than from elected officials at the national level (who by the way run a greater risk of becoming despotic & evil) § How can a nation already w/3 million people elect officials who can meet all of their needs? § This point also hints at the benefits of a state gov’t. in promoting participatory democracy while the national gov’t. would favor elite/pluralistic democracies

19 TH PARAGRAPH § In a republic, the manners, sentiments, and interests of the people should be similar. If this be not the case, there will be a constant clashing of opinions; and the representatives of one part will be continually striving against those of the other. This will retard the operations of government, and prevent such conclusions as will promote the public good. If we apply this remark to the condition of the United States, we shall be convinced that it forbids that we should be one government. The United States includes a variety of climates. The productions of the different parts of the union are very variant, and their interests, of consequence, diverse. Their manners and habits differ as much as their climates and productions; and their sentiments are by no means coincident. The laws and customs of the several states are, in many respects, very diverse, and in some opposite; each would be in favor of its own interests and customs, and, of consequence, a legislature, formed of representatives from the respective parts, would not only be too numerous to act with any care or decision, but would be composed of such heterogenous and discordant principles, as would constantly be contending with each other.

19 TH PARAGRAPH § Also, in a republic, the manners, sentiments, & interests of the people should be similar, otherwise there will be a constant clashing of opinions & the representatives of one part will be constantly striving against those of the other (factionalism) § This slows the operations of gov’t. & thus the public good § The U. S. includes a variety of climates, where things are very different from one region of the country to another § This is represented in the fact that the laws/customs of our state governments are very diverse meeting their unique needs § A National gov’t. would create a group of elected officials too large to come to any compromise and whose views would be so diverse & different, that things would not get solved or accomplished

20 TH - 22 ND PARAGRAPH § The laws cannot be executed in a republic, of an extent equal to that of the United States, with promptitude. § The magistrates in every government must be supported in the execution of the laws, either by an armed force, maintained at the public expence for that purpose; or by the people turning out to aid the magistrate upon his command, in case of resistance. § In despotic governments, as well as in all the monarchies of Europe, standing armies are kept up to execute the commands of the prince or the magistrate, and are employed for this purpose when occasion requires: But they have always proved the destruction of liberty, and [are] abhorrent to the spirit of a free republic. In England, where they depend upon the parliament for their annual support, they have always been complained of as oppressive and unconstitutional, and are seldom employed in executing of the laws; never except on extraordinary occasions, and then under the direction of a civil magistrate.

20 TH - 22 ND PARAGRAPH §Let’s turn our attention to that of a standing national army §Every gov’t. that has an army uses it at its own discretion & pleasure §Don’t forget about the despotic monarchs in Europe whose standing armies were used to destroy life, liberty, & property of the people at the expense of the prince/king §In England, standing armies have always been considered oppressive & unconstitutional

23 RD PARAGRAPH § A free republic will never keep a standing army to execute its laws. It must depend upon the support of its citizens. But when a government is to receive its support from the aid of the citizens, it must be so constructed as to have the confidence, respect, and affection of the people. Men who, upon the call of the magistrate, offer themselves to execute the laws, are influenced to do it either by affection to the government, or from fear; where a standing army is at hand to punish offenders, every man is actuated by the latter principle, and therefore, when the magistrate calls, will obey: but, where this is not the case, the government must rest for its support upon the confidence and respect which the people have for their government and laws. The body of the people being attached, the government will always be sufficient to support and execute its laws, and to operate upon the fears of any faction which may be opposed to it, not only to prevent an opposition to the execution of the laws themselves, but also to compel the most of them to aid the magistrate; but the people will not be likely to have such confidence in their rulers, in a republic so extensive as the United States, as necessary for these purposes. The confidence which the people have in their rulers, in a free republic, arises from their knowing them, from their being responsible to them for their conduct, and from the power they have of displacing them when they misbehave: but in a republic of the extent of this continent, the people in general would be acquainted with very few of their rulers: the people at large would know little of their proceedings, and it would be extremely difficult to change them. The people in Georgia and New-Hampshire would not know one another’s mind, and therefore could not act in concert to enable them to effect a general change of representatives. The different parts of so extensive a country could not possibly be made acquainted with the conduct of their representatives, nor be informed of the reasons upon which measures were founded. The consequence will be, they will have no confidence in their legislature, suspect them of ambitious views, be jealous of every measure they adopt, and will not support the laws they pass. Hence the government will be nerveless and inefficient, and no way will be left to render it otherwise, but by establishing an armed force to execute the laws at the point of the bayonet — a government of all others the most to be dreaded.

23 RD PARAGRAPH § A free republic will never keep a standing army to execute its laws because it must depend on the support from its people, & the people must have confidence, respect, & affection for this army § This type of love & affection would almost certainly not exist in a large republic because such an emotion comes from the people ‘knowing’ their elected officials on a personal basis (which is very unlikely within a large republic) § For example, the people in Georgia are not going to have the emotional connection to representatives from New Hampshire & vice versa § This will ultimately lead to mistrust of elected officials from a national gov’t. & thus also distrust for its national standing army

24 TH PARAGRAPH §In a republic of such vast extent as the United- States, the legislature cannot attend to the various concerns and wants of its different parts. It cannot be sufficiently numerous to be acquainted with the local condition and wants of the different districts, and if it could, it is impossible it should have sufficient time to attend to and provide for all the variety of cases of this nature, that would be continually arising.

24 TH PARAGRAPH §A national legislature for a nation as big as the U. S. is not capable of dealing with the various nuances & intricacies of the local/regional customs §Even though it would be big in size, it still wouldn’t have enough elected officials to be fully aware & understanding of all the local customs & cultures.

25 TH PARAGRAPH § In so extensive a republic, the great officers of government would soon become above the controul of the people, and abuse their power to the purpose of aggrandizing themselves, and oppressing them. The trust committed to the executive offices, in a country of the extent of the United. States, must be various and of magnitude. The command of all the troops and navy of the republic, the appointment of officers, the power of pardoning offences, the collecting of all the public revenues, and the power of expending them, with a number of other powers, must be lodged and exercised in every state, in the hands of a few. When these are attended with great honor and emolument, as they always will be in large states, so as greatly to interest men to pursue them, and to be proper objects for ambitious and designing men, such men will be ever restless in their pursuit after them. They will use the power, when they have acquired it, to the purposes of gratifying their own interest and ambition, and it is scarcely possible, in a very large republic, to call them to account for their misconduct, or to prevent their abuse of power.

25 TH PARAGRAPH §In addition, elected officials in a large republic would almost certainly believe that they were ‘above the law’ & would eventually abuse their power to further their own pursuits while oppressing the masses. §How hard would it be for a nationally-elected official to not become abusive with power when he/she can command all of our troops/navy, appoint military officers, pardon offenders, & lay/collect taxes §Once they have begun to abuse their power & oppress the masses, it will be very difficult to hold them accountable & take away this power

26 TH PARAGRAPH §These are some of the reasons by which it appears, that a free republic cannot long subsist over a country of the great extent of these states. If then this new constitution is calculated to consolidate thirteen states into one, as it evidently is, it ought not to be adopted.

26 TH PARAGRAPH §These are just some of the reasons why a free republic (participatory democracy) can not exist with a strong national government §With this said, this new Constitution should not be adopted

27 TH PARAGRAPH § Though I am of opinion, that it is a sufficient objection to this government, to reject it, that it creates the whole union into one government, under the form of a republic, yet if this objection was obviated, there are exceptions to it, which are so material and fundamental, that they ought to determine every man, who is a friend to the liberty and happiness of mankind, not to adopt it. I beg the candid and dispassionate attention of my countrymen while I state these objections — they are such as have obtruded themselves upon my mind upon a careful attention to the matter, and such as I sincerely believe are well founded. There are many objections, of small moment, of which I shall take no notice — perfection is not to be expected in any thing that is the production of man — and if I did not in my conscience believe that this scheme was defective in the fundamental principles — in the foundation upon which a free and equal government must rest — I would hold my peace.

27 TH PARAGRAPH §Even though it is clear that I object to this new Constitution, it should be clear to each person who supports liberty & happiness, that this new gov’t. not be accepted §My arguments are well-founded, my objections are many §If there were only a few objections to this new type of gov’t. , I would hold my tongue, but obviously there are many and they are fundamental ones at that!