Bits and Bytes Topics Representing information as bits

Bits and Bytes Topics Representing information as bits Bit-level manipulations Boolean algebra Expressing in C

Binary Representations Base 2 Number Representation Represent 1521310 as 111011012 Represent 1. 2010 as 1. 00110011[0011]… 2 Represent 1. 5213 X 104 as 1. 11011012 X 213 Electronic Implementation – 2– Easy to store with bistable elements Reliably transmitted on noisy and inaccurate wires CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Encoding Byte Values Byte = 8 bits Binary Decimal: 00002 to 11112 010 to 25510 First digit must not be 0 in C Hexadecimal 0016 to FF 16 Base 16 number representation Use characters ‘ 0’ to ‘ 9’ and ‘A’ to ‘F’ Write FA 1 D 37 B 16 in C as 0 x. FA 1 D 37 B » Or 0 xfa 1 d 37 b – 3– CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Byte-Oriented Memory Organization Programs Refer to Virtual Addresses Conceptually very large array of bytes Actually implemented with hierarchy of different memory types System provides address space private to particular “process” Program being executed Program can clobber its own data, but not that of others Compiler + Run-Time System Control Allocation – 4– Where different program objects should be stored All allocation within single virtual address space CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Machine Words Machine Has “Word Size” Nominal size of integer-valued data Including addresses Most current machines use 32 bits (4 bytes) words Limits addresses to 4 GB Becoming too small for memory-intensive applications High-end systems use 64 bits (8 bytes) words Potential address space 1. 8 X 1019 bytes x 86 -64 machines support 48 -bit addresses: 256 Terabytes Machines support multiple data formats Fractions or multiples of word size Always integral number of bytes – 5– CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Word-Oriented Memory Organization 32 -bit 64 -bit Words Addresses Specify Byte Locations Addr = ? ? Address of first byte in word Addresses of successive words differ by 4 (32 -bit) or 8 (64 -bit) Addr = ? ? – 6– Addr = ? ? Bytes Addr. 0000 0001 0002 0003 0004 0005 0006 0007 0008 0009 0010 0011 0012 0013 0014 0015 CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Data Representations Sizes of C Objects (in Bytes) C Data Type Typical 32 -bit Intel IA 32 char 1 – 7– 1 1 short 2 2 2 int 4 4 4 long 4 4 8 long 8 8 float 4 4 4 double 8 8 long double 8 10/12 char * 4 4 8 » Or any other pointer x 86 -64 8 8 10/16 CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Byte Ordering How should bytes within multi-byte word be ordered in memory? Conventions Big Endian: Sun, PPC Mac, Internet Least significant byte has highest address Little Endian: x 86 Least significant byte has lowest address – 8– CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Byte Ordering Example Big Endian Least significant byte has highest address Little Endian Least significant byte has lowest address Example Variable x has 4 -byte representation 0 x 01234567 Address given by &x is 0 x 100 Big Endian Little Endian – 9– CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Reading Byte-Reversed Listings Disassembly Text representation of binary machine code Generated by program that reads the machine code Example Fragment Address 8048365: 8048366: 804836 c: Instruction Code 5 b 81 c 3 ab 12 00 00 83 bb 28 00 00 Assembly Rendition pop %ebx add $0 x 12 ab, %ebx cmpl $0 x 0, 0 x 28(%ebx) Deciphering Numbers – 10 – Value: Pad to 32 bits: 0 x 000012 ab Split into bytes: 00 00 12 ab Reverse: 0 x 12 ab ab 12 00 00 CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Examining Data Representations Code to Print Byte Representation of Data Casting pointer to unsigned char * creates byte array typedef unsigned char *pointer; void show_bytes(pointer start, int len) { int i; for (i = 0; i < len; i++) printf("0 x%pt 0 x%. 2 xn", start+i, start[i]); printf("n"); } printf directives: %p: Print pointer %x: Print Hexadecimal – 11 – CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

show_bytes Execution Example int a = 15213; printf("int a = 15213; n"); show_bytes((pointer) &a, sizeof(int)); Result (Linux): int a = 15213; – 12 – 0 x 11 ffffcb 8 0 x 6 d 0 x 11 ffffcb 9 0 x 3 b 0 x 11 ffffcba 0 x 00 0 x 11 ffffcbb 0 x 00 CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Representing Integers int A = 15213; int B = -15213; Decimal: 15213 Binary: Hex: 0011 1011 0110 1101 3 B 6 D Two’s complement representation (Covered later) – 13 – CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Representing Pointers int B = -15213; int *P = &B; Different compilers & machines assign different locations to objects – 14 – CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Representing Strings in C char S[6] = "15213"; Represented by array of characters Each character encoded in ASCII format Linux/Alpha S Sun S Standard 7 -bit encoding of character set Character “ 0” has code 0 x 30 » Digit i has code 0 x 30+i String should be null-terminated Final character = 0 Compatibility – 15 – Byte ordering not an issue CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Boolean Algebra Developed by George Boole in 19 th Century Algebraic representation of logic Encode “True” as 1 and “False” as 0 – 16 – CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Application of Boolean Algebra Applied to Digital Systems by Claude Shannon 1937 MIT Master’s Thesis Reason about networks of relay switches Encode closed switch as 1, open switch as 0 Connection when A&~B | ~A&B = A^B – 17 – CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

General Boolean Algebras Operate on Bit Vectors Operations applied bitwise 01101001 & 0101 01000001 01101001 | 0101 01111101 01101001 ^ 0101 00111100 ~ 0101 10101010 All of the Properties of Boolean Algebra Apply – 18 – CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Representing & Manipulating Sets Representation Width w bit vector represents subsets of {0, …, w– 1} aj = 1 if j A 01101001 { 0, 3, 5, 6 } 76543210 0101 76543210 { 0, 2, 4, 6 } Operations – 19 – & Intersection 01000001 { 0, 6 } | Union 01111101 { 0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } ^Symmetric difference 00111100 { 2, 3, 4, 5 } ~Complement 1010 { 1, 3, 5, 7 } CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Bit-Level Operations in C Operations &, |, ~, ^ Available in C Apply to any “integral” data type long, int, short, char, unsigned View arguments as bit vectors Arguments applied bit-wise Examples (char data type) ~0 x 41 --> ~010000012 0 x. BE ~0 x 00 --> 101111102 0 x. FF ~00002 --> 0 x 69 & 0 x 55 --> 11112 0 x 41 011010012 & 01012 --> 010000012 0 x 69 | 0 x 55 --> 0 x 7 D 011010012 | 01012 --> 011111012 – 20 – CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Contrast: Logic Operations in C Contrast to Logical Operators &&, ||, ! View 0 as “False” Anything nonzero as “True” Always return 0 or 1 Early termination (short-cut evaluation) Examples (char data type) – 21 – !0 x 41 --> 0 x 00 !0 x 00 --> 0 x 01 !!0 x 41 --> 0 x 01 0 x 69 && 0 x 55 --> 0 x 01 0 x 69 || 0 x 55 --> 0 x 01 p && *p access) (avoids null pointer CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

Shift Operations Left Shift: x << y Shift bit-vector x left y positions » Throw away extra bits on left Fill with 0’s on right Right Shift: x >> y Shift bit-vector x right y positions Throw away extra bits on right Logical shift Fill with 0’s on left Arithmetic shift Replicate most significant bit on Argument x 01100010 << 3 00010000 Log. >> 2 00011000 Arith. >> 2 00011000 Argument x 10100010 << 3 00010000 Log. >> 2 00101000 Arith. >> 2 11101000 right Undefined Behavior – 22 – Shift amount < 0 or word size CMSC 313, F ‘ 09

C operator quiz int x = 44; int y = 10; int z; z = x & y; printf( “%x, %d”, z, z ); /* output: 0 x 10, 8 */ z = y | x; printf( “%x, %d”, z, z ); /* output: 0 x 2 E, 46 */ z = (x & 0 x 4) << 2; printf( “%x, %d”, z, z ); /* output: 0 x 20, 32 */ z = (y | 5) & 0 x 3; /* output: 0 x 3, 3 */ printf( “%x, %d”, z, z ); z = x && y; printf( “%d”, z ); – 23 – /* output: 1 */ CMSC 313, F ‘ 09