Biotechnology Biotechnology Literally translated means life technology Applying
Biotechnology
Biotechnology • Literally translated means “life technology” • Applying knowledge about living things for the practical use of human kind • How long do you think biotechnology has existed?
Buzz Words in Biotechnology • • • Genetic Engineering Stem Cell Research Cloning Bioterror Forensic Science GMO (genetically modified organsim) Pharmacogenomics Personalized Medicine Human Genome Project
Place to following in order from smallest to largest Atom Cell Ecosystem Organism Biosphere Molecule (DNA) Population Electron Organelle Community Proton Tissue Organ system Virus
Electron Proton & neutron Atom Molecule (DNA) In Your Journal organelle Can all forms of technology be used to study all of these aspects of biology? Explain! virus Cell Tissue Organ system Organism Population Community Ecosystem biosphere
3 Main Types of Experiments • in vitro: experiments done in glass, testubes, or petri dishes. Not in living multicellular organisms • in vivo: in a living cell or organism • in silico: experiments done through computer simulation or programming • Biotechnology demands synthetic thinking that incorporates knowledge from all 3 types of experiments
Biotechnology • The technical aspects of life involve the complex chemical interactions that take place among the several thousand different kinds of molecules found in any living organism • Macromolecules in living things can be classified into 1 of 4 categories – Protein – Carbohydrate Nucleic Acid Lipid
Biotechnologies Macromolecules Protein Nucleic Acids • Essential parts of organisms that participate in virtually every process within cells. • Contain the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and viruses. • 2 types : – – – Cell structure Signaling Transport Biological catalysts Immune response – DNA – RNA
Proteins: Essential Parts of Organisms • Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. • Some have structural or mechanical functions – actin and myosin in muscle – proteins in the cytoskeleton maintains cell shape. • Other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle.
DNA: the Master Molecule • Of the several thousand macromolecules needed to keep living things alive, DNA is the master molecule in whose structure is encoded all the information needed to create and direct the chemical machinery of life (mainly proteins)
DNA: the Master Molecule • DNA accomplishes this by providing a template to make RNA, which in turn acts is the instructions to build proteins, which are essentially the building blocks and machinery that allow for life • Analysis of the flow and regulation of this genetic information from DNA RNA Protein is the subject of molecular genetics
Molecular Genetics • aka: molecular biology • Has blurred the lines between biology, physics, and chemistry • It arose from a confluence of disciplines from both the physical sciences and the natural sciences – Genetics – Physical chemistry – Quantum mechanics Biochemistry Microbiology Virology
Biotechnology & Molecular Biology • Bio = Life – Molecular biology studies the relationship between DNA RNA Protein • Technology : – Technology is a term with origins in the Greek technología • téchnē = 'craft' • logía = the study of something
Molecular Biology Arises From a Structure -Function Tradition
�Natural scientists have always tried to find relationships between structure & function �This pursuit began with the examination of obvious physical attributes �Physicians from the earliest civilizations tried to relate their knowledge of the human body to the treatment of illness Structure & Function
�Advanced 1830’s part of the cell theory in the ◦ Individual cells are the basic units of structure and function in both plants and animals �Organs were now seen to be composed of tissues �Tissues are groups of cells with similar structures that perform similar functions �Moved structure functionalism beyond Determined animals Determined all systems directly observable withallthe are made of plants are made of naked eye cells Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann
�Cells in turn were found to be composed of organelles, each of which has its own specific function ◦ Mitochondria produce energy ◦ Lysosomes digest waste and cellular debris ◦ Ribosomes make protein ◦ Chloroplast do photosynthesis to make sugar �By the 1930’s the stage was set for structure functionalism to move to the level of biologically important molecules Cells
�Reproduction �Organized structure composed of 1 or more cells �The ability to respond to your environment and maintain homeostasis �The ability to transform energy 4 Characteristics of Life
�Molecular biology arose from the quest to define the nature of heredity �Reproduction is perhaps the most distinctive attribute of life �Replication of multicellular organisms all begin the same way, with replication of a cell �To explain replication of cells and inheritance of traits over successive generations is, in large measure, to define life Molecular Biology
�We now understand the nature of heredity and so have answered many of the questions of the genomic era �As we move into the post-genomic era the question is not about how things are inherited, but rather can we manipulate them! ◦ This is the subject of this class The Biotechnology Revolution
� 100 years ago there was no explanation why some siblings have brown eyes and other blue � 75 years ago the physical structures of simple organic molecules were unknown � 50 years ago we did not know the correct # of human chromosomes � 25 years ago we did not know any of the genes behind cancer �We still do not know how many genes are in the human genome! Bear in Mind…
�Scientific study of heredity ◦ Heredity: the transmission of genetic characters from parents to offspring: �it is dependent upon the segregation and recombination of genes during meiosis and fertilization �it results in the creation of a new individual similar to others of its kind but exhibiting certain variations Heredity
�Enter Austrian Monk Gregor Mendel ◦ Crossed different varieties of garden pea plants and using mathematical analysis provided a basis for inheritance ◦ Brought the hereditary process down to the individual organism ◦ Provided a mechanism to drive evolution How are Traits passed on from 1 Generation to the Next
�P generation = parental generation ◦ True breeding parents �F 1 generation = 1 st filial or 1 st generation of offspring �F 2 generation = 2 nd filial, or 2 nd generation of offspring Types of Hybridization
�Gene: sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and thus determines a trait �Allele: a gene 1 of a number of different forms of �Gamete: A reproductive cell having the haploid number of chromosomes, especially a mature sperm or egg capable of fusing with a gamete of the opposite sex to produce the fertilized egg Vocabulary
Homozygous: pair of identical alleles for a trait Heterozygous: Having 2 different alleles for a trait Genotype: an organisms genetic makeup Phenotype: an organisms outward appearance
�Mendel showed that “traits” are inherited in a predictable manner through what we now know are “genes” ◦ Genes governing individual traits do not “blend” but rather are maintained as discrete bits of hereditary information ◦ Useful traits can be accentuated through controlled mating How are Traits passed on from 1 Generation to the Next
Genes can have alternate versions called alleles. 2. Each offspring inherits two alleles, one from each parent 3. If the two alleles differ, the dominant allele is expressed. The recessive allele remains hidden unless the dominant allele is absent. from each parent 4. The two alleles for each trait separate during gamete formation 1. Mendels Hypothesis
�Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes �Chromosome Theory of Inheritance ◦ States: Genes have specific loci (locations) along chromosomes, and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment, rather than the individual genes ◦ Developed in 1902 by Walter Sutton & Theodor Boveri
�Chose to use fruit flies as a test organism in genetics. �Allowed the first tracing of traits to specific chromosomes �There are many genes, but only a few chromosomes. �Therefore, each chromosome must carry a number of genes together as a “package”. ◦ Traits that are located on the same chromosome, and so tend to be inherited together, are called Linked Genes Thomas Morgan Hunt
�All genes found on the same chromosome are said to be linked �If genes on the same chromosome are 100% linked, you would only produce the parental phenotype for that chromosome, and as you can see in the previous picture, that is not the case Linked Genes
�The production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent � 3 Types of Genetic Recombination ◦ Recombination of unlinked genes due to independent assortment ◦ Recombination of linked genes due to crossing over ◦ Recombination of genes due to human manipulation Genetic Recombination
Why its important Learning about DNA contributes to our knowledge of… ◦ genetic disorders ◦ viral diseases ◦ cancer ◦ aging ◦ genetic engineering ◦ criminal investigations DNA: The Genetic Material
�Relate Griffith’s conclusions to the observations he made during the transformation experiments. �Summarize the steps involved in Avery’s transformation experiments, and state the results. �Evaluate the results of the Hershey and Chase experiment. Objectives
�Vaccine �Virulent �Transformation �Bacteriophage New Vocabulary
◦ What does DNA stand for? deoxyribonucleic acid ◦ What subunits make up DNA? nucleotides ◦ What three parts do the subunits consist of? phosphate group, Pentose (5 carbon) sugar, & a nitrogenous base DNA
�DNA was first identified as far back as 1868 ____ by a Swiss scientist named Miescher Friedrich ______ nuclei extracted DNA from the _____ of pus cells found on surgical bandages �He nuclein first DNA was called _____ because it was a substance found in the nucleus �At Friedrich Miescher
�Miescher was also able to separate the substance into two basic parts… ◦ The phosphate groups, also called phosphoric acid, were slightly acidic, so DNA belongs to a class of substances called nucleic acids �Throughout the next century, scientists made many exciting discoveries about the function and structure of DNA
Griffith’s Experiments �In 1928, Frederick Griffith, a bacteriologist, carried out an experiment that led to an accidental discovery about DNA �He was actually trying to prepare a vaccine against the bacteria, Streptococcus pneumoniae, which causes pneumonia Transformation
� Griffith was working with two strains of S. pneumoniae… ◦ One enclosed in a capsule of polysaccharides, that protects the bacterium from the body’s defense system �This helps make the bacterium virulent, or able to cause disease �Smooth-edged S strain ◦ The other strain lacks the polysaccharide capsule and is unable to cause disease �Rough – edged= R strain
� In Griffith’s experiment, he injected mice with… ◦ S bacteria ◦ R bacteria ◦ Heat-killed S bacteria and normal R bacteria
�Note about “heat-killing”… ◦ During Griffith’s time, it was not understood that DNA can tolerate temperatures around proteins 90°C without being altered, but ______ are altered at around 60°C ◦ So “heat-killing” damages a cells proteins and enzymes but leaves DNA intact ________,
Griffiths Discovery of Transformation
�Somehow, the harmless R bacteria had virulent changed and become _______ �Griffith had discovered what transformation __________ is now called ◦ Occurs when a cell picks up new DNA from it’s environment changing its combination of _______, genotype genes, called a _________
Receptor protein Heat-killed S bacteria is ______ down broken and its DNA escapes to the environment A receptor protein on the R bacteria receives the S bacteria DNA
Restriction enzyme cut paste Then restriction enzymes _____ and _____ the two pieces of DNA together
�But during Griffith’s time, scientists really didn’t understand transformation �During the 1940 s and 1950 s, scientists were still debating over what cell part contained genetic information ◦ Many scientists actually thought that proteins ______ contained our genetic information, and not DNA.
Oswald Avery 1944, a scientist named Oswald _____ conducted a transformation experiment under 4 different conditions… proteins ◦ Condition 1: Added an enzyme that destroyed ____ DNA ◦ Condition 2: Added an enzyme that destroyed ____ ◦ Condition 3: Added an enzyme that destroyed ___ lipids � In Condition 4: Added an enzyme that destroyed Carbs ____ � Result? ◦ Transformation was only stopped by the enzymes that destroyed DNA, so it must contain the genetic material!
�Despite Avery’s results, scientists skeptical remained _______ �Since proteins are so important to many structures and cell _______ metabolism ________, most scientists still thought that proteins contained the genetic material
DNA � � Hershey and In 1952, Alfred ______ Chase Martha _______ set out to settle the controversy. Their experiments made use of a bacteriophage which is a type of virus that attacks and infect bacterial cells ◦ A virus is much smaller than a cell and consists of a nucleic acid. Either DNA ____ or ____RNA (never both) surrounded by a protective protein coat called a capsid Hershey and Chase Capsid
�A special type of virus that infects bacteria ________ cells is called a bacteriophage _________ or phage a _____ for short Capsid with DNA �The viral DNA is contained capsid in the ____ and the fibers tail _____ attach to the bacteria cell �After attachment, the DNA is injected into cell, almost shot like a _____ Tail Fibers
�The bacteriophage made the perfect test subject, because it was a simple substance that contained both DNA proteins ____ and ______ ◦ Scientists knew that DNA contained a phosphate ______ group ◦ They also knew that proteins often contain sulfur the element _____
�So Hershey and Chase labeled the phages with one of the following radioactive isotopes… 32 P �______, which would be found in DNA 35 S �______, which would be found in the protein coat
�These radioactive isotopes will decay _____ or break down into stable detected particles that can be ______ with machines �Next the labeled phages were allowed to infect ______ the bacteria cells
�Hershey and Chase then checked to see which parts of the phage entered the bacteria cells �First the phages that were still attached to the bacteria cells were removed with a blender _________
�Then the bacteria cells and the phages were placed in test tubes and spun in a machine called a centrifuge Which spins, causing the different substances settle out by weight _____
�The heavier bacteria cells settled at the bottom _____ of the test tubes while the lighter phages remained suspended in the supernatant at the top of the tube 32 P �Only the ______ isotope was found inside of the bacteria cells Phages 35 S Bacteria cells 35 S test tube (protein) 32 P test tube (DNA)
�So based on these results… which substance, proteins or DNA, would you conclude is responsible for transformation? DNA Phages 35 S Bacteria cells 35 S test tube (protein) 32 P test tube (DNA)
� 1866 - Mendel's Paper � 1875 - Mitosis worked out � 1890's- Meiosis worked out � 1902 - Sutton, Boveri et. al. connect chromosomes to Meiosis. � 1907 - Morgans “fly room” provides support for chromosomes as the hereditary material Time Line
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