Biomes ecoregions and biodiversity hotspots Rich Knight Biodiversity

Biomes, eco-regions and biodiversity hotspots Rich Knight, Biodiversity & Conservation Biology UWC knight. rich@gmail. com http: //planet. uwc. ac. za/nisl/BCB 242 Note: Additional notes in text - all slides with the green tick are exa

Biomes (Terrestrial) Spatial units with "Ecological Similarity" with respect to communities of q q q Plants, Animals, Soil Organisms. Defined based on q q Plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and grasses), Leaf types (such as broadleaf and needle leaf), Plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), Climate (moisture and temperature).

Biome characteristics Not defined by q q q genetic, taxonomic, or historical similarities Biomes are often identified with particular patterns of q q Ecological succession e. g. Savanna, Climax vegetation e. g. Tropical Rainforest.

Biome Biodiversity Determined especially by fauna e. g. mammals Subdominant plant forms depends on q q Abiotic factors (soil, light etc) Biomass productivity of the dominant vegetation Species diversity tends to be higher in biomes with particular patterns of q q q higher net primary productivity, higher moisture availability higher temperatures

Biome - distribution Major factor determining their distribution are q q Latitude: arctic, boreal, temperate, subtropical, tropical Humidity: humid, semi-arid, and arid. q q q seasonal variation: rainfall may be distributed evenly throughout the year, or possess seasonal variations. dry summer, wet winter: most regions of the earth receive most of their rainfall during the summer months; Mediterranean climate regions receive their rainfall during the winter months. Elevation: increasing elevation causes a distribution of habitat types similar to that of increasing latitude. Biodiversity increases towards the equator and with increased humidity.

Biomes Schematic Diagram

Udvardy Classification (12) q q q Tropical humid forests Subtropical and temperate rainforests or woodlands Temperate broad-leaf forests or woodlands and subpolar deciduous thickets Temperate needle-leaf forests or woodlands Evergreen sclerophyllous forests, scrub, or woodlands Tropical dry or deciduous forests (including Monsoon forests) or woodlands Temperate grasslands Warm deserts and semi-deserts Cold-winter (continental) deserts and semi-deserts Tundra communities and barren Arctic deserts Mixed mountain and highland systems with complex zonation Mixed island systems

WWF: major habitat types (14) q q q q Tundra (arctic) Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid) Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semihumid) Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid) Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (temperate, semi-arid) Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub (temperate warm, semi-humid to semi-arid with winter rainfall) Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semi-humid) Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid)

WWF. . . /continued q q q Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semi-humid) Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical, semi-arid) Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate) Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid) Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated) Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated) Further divided into 825 terrestrial eco-regions. WWF identified 200 ecoregions for conservation prioritization.

Aquatic biomes q q q q Continental shelf Littoral/Intertidal zone Riparian Pond/Lake Coral reef Kelp forest Pack ice q q Hydrothermal vents Cold seeps Benthic zone Pelagic zone q q q Epipelagic Mesopelagic Bathypelagic Abyssopelagic Hadopelagic Neritic zone

34 Biodiversity Hotspots >70% habitat lost, >1 500 endemic vascular plant spp. Investment criteria for Conservation International’s prioritization.

Defining Biodiversity Hotspots Coined by Norman Myers in two articles in “The Environmentalist” (1988 & 1990) Revised by Myers “Hotspots: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions” (1999) q q Thirty-four areas are identified and support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species Half of the world’s plant species and 42 percent of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to hotspots Covers only 2. 3 percent of the Earth's land surface Therefore defined as "a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is threatened with destruction"

Critique of Biodiv. Hotspots High profile of the biodiversity hotspots concept - World Banks funding has resulted in considerable criticism q q q Inadequate representation of other species richness (e. g. total species richness or threatened species richness). Inadequate representation of taxa other than vascular plants (e. g. vertebrates, or fungi). No provision to protect smaller scale richness No provision for changing land use patterns. Do not consider ecosystem services Do not consider phylogenetic diversity.

Global Conservation q q Do not address the concept of cost The purpose of biodiversity hotspots is not simply to identify regions that are of high biodiversity value, but to prioritise conservation spending. The regions identified include regions in the developed world (e. g. the California Floristic Province), alongside regions in the developing world (e. g. Madagascar). The cost of land is likely to vary between these regions by an order of magnitude or more, but the biodiversity hotspots do not consider the conservation importance of this difference. http: //www. biodiversityhotspots. org http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Biodiversity_hotspots

North and Central America 1. California Floristic Province 2. Caribbean Islands 3. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands 4. Mesoamerica 1 3 3 4 2 4

South America 1. Atlantic Forest 2. Cerrado 3. Chilean Winter Rainfall. Valdivian Forests 4. Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena 5. Tropical Andes 4 4 5 5 5 3 3 3 2 1 1

Europe and Central Asia 1. Caucasus 2. Irano-Anatolian 3. Mediterranean Basin 4. Mountains of Central Asia 3 3 3 1 2 2 2 4 4

Africa 1. Cape Floristic Region 2. Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa 3. Eastern Afromontane 4. Guinean Forests of West Africa 5. Horn of Africa 6. Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands 7. Maputaland. Pondoland-Albany 8. Succulent Karoo 4 4 5 3 4 3 2 3 3 8 1 7 7 2 2 6

Asia-Pacific 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. East Melanesian Islands Himalaya Indo-Burma Japan Mountains of Southwest China 6. New Caledonia 7. New Zealand 8. Philippines 9. Polynesia-Micronesia 10. Southwest Australia 11. Sundaland 12. Wallacea 13. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka 4 2 13 13 4 5 3 11 8 12 9 1 9 9 6 10 7

California Floristic Province q q q q Mediterranean-type climate of North America High levels of plant endemism the giant sequoia, the planet's largest living organism and less massive relative, the coastal redwood. Has a number of threatened endemic species such as the giant kangaroo rat and the desert slender salamander Some of the last individuals of the Critically Endangered California condor Wilderness destruction caused by commercial farming Heavily threatened by the expansion of urban areas, pollution, and road construction.

California Floristic Province Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 293. 804 73. 451 2. 124 Endemic Threatened Birds 4 Endemic Threatened Mammals 5 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 8 Extinct Species 2 Human Population Density (people/km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV 121 108. 715 30. 002

Caribbean Islands q q Diverse ecosystems from montane cloud forests to cactus scrublands Devastated by deforestation Hotspot has dozens of threatened species, including two species of solenodon (giant shrews) and the Cuban crocodile. The hotspot is also remarkable for the diminutive nature of much of its fauna, boasting the world's smallest bird (the tiny bee hummingbird) and smallest snake.

Caribbean Islands Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 229, 549 22, 955 6, 550 Endemic Threatened Birds 48 Endemic Threatened Mammals 18 Endemic Threatened Amphibians Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 143 38 155 Area Protected (km 2) 29, 605 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 16, 306

Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands q q q Includes Mexico's main mountain chains, mountaintops in Baja California and southern US An area of rugged mountainous terrain, high relief, and deep canyons. Quarter of Mexico's plant species are found here, many of which are endemic. The pine forests of Michoaca'n provide over-wintering sites for the annual monarch butterfly migrations Excessive logging is causing destruction of pine forests and consequent loss of habitat.

Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 461, 265 92, 253 3, 975 Endemic Threatened Birds 7 Endemic Threatened Mammals 2 Endemic Threatened Amphibians Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 36 1 32 27, 361 8, 900

Mesoamerica q q The Mesoamerican forests are third largest among the world's hotspots. Endemic species include quetzals, howler monkeys, and 17, 000 plant species. Is also a corridor for many Neotropical migrant bird species. The hotspot's montane forests are important for amphibians, many endemic species of which are in dramatic decline due to an interaction between habitat loss, fungal disease and climate change.

Mesoamerica Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 1, 130, 019 226, 004 2, 941 Endemic Threatened Birds 31 Endemic Threatened Mammals 29 Endemic Threatened Amphibians Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 232 7 72 142, 103 63, 902

Atlantic Forest q q q Occurs in tropical South America includes 20, 000 plant species, and 40% are endemic. Only 10 percent or less remains. More than 24 Critically Endangered vertebrate species including three species of lion tamarins and six bird species Hotspot has almost 950 avian species with endemics such as the red-billed curassow, the Brazilian merganser. Sugarcane plantations and later, coffee plantations has contributed to significant habitat destruction over the centuries With massive urban growth of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo threaten what remains of this hotspot.

Atlantic Forest Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 1, 233, 875 99, 944 8, 000 Endemic Threatened Birds 55 Endemic Threatened Mammals 21 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 14 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 1 87 Area Protected (km 2) 50, 370 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 22, 782

Cerrado q q q Comprising 21% of Brazil Most extensive woodland-savanna in South America. Has a pronounced dry season and supports a unique array of droughtand fire- adapted plant species Numerous endemic bird species. Large mammals such as the giant anteater, giant armadillo, jaguar and maned wolf still survive despite rapid expansion of Brazil's agricultural frontier, which focuses primarily on soy and corn. Ranching is another major threat to the region, as it produces almost 40 million cattle a year.

Cerrado Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species Endemic Threatened Birds 2, 031, 990 438, 910 4, 400 10 Endemic Threatened Mammals 4 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 2 Extinct Species 0 Human Population Density (people/km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 13 111, 051 28, 736

Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests q q q q Isolated by being bounded by the Pacific Ocean, the Andes Mountains, and the Atacama Desert. These forests have a rich endemic flora and fauna. Protection from logging now exists. Rare fauna include Andean cat, the mountain vizcacha, & Andean condor. Reptilian, amphibian, and freshwater fish endemism is high. Threats include overgrazing, invasive species, & urbanization. Major hydroelectric dams and coastal development are specific problems facing the conservation of this hotspot.

Chilean Winter Rainfall. Valdivian Forests Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 397, 142 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 119, 143 Endemic Plant Species 1, 957 Endemic Threatened Birds 6 Endemic Threatened Mammals 5 Endemic Threatened Amphibians Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 15 0 37 Area Protected (km 2) 50, 745 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 44, 388

Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena q q q Bordered by Mesoamerica in the north, and to the east the Tropical Andes hotspots. Endemic fauna include bare-necked umbrella bird and the brightlycolored poison dart frogs, are characteristic of the region. The white-winged guan of Southern Ecuador and extreme northern Peru is seriously threatened with extinction. Urbanization, hunting (large birds and mammals), and deforestation, especially mangroves are threats. Ecuador's coastal forests are only 2 percent of their original area consequently species presence continue to decline.

Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species Endemic Threatened Birds 274, 597 65, 903 2, 750 21 Endemic Threatened Mammals 7 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 8 Extinct Species 4 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 51 Area Protected (km 2) 34, 338 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 18, 814

Tropical Andes q q q q Greatest biodiversity on Earth Contain about 1/6 of all plant spp. in <1% of earth's surface Species with unusual life histories e. g. Andean bromelilad 100 yrs to mature. The threatened yellow-eared parrot, yellow-tailed woolly monkey and spectacled bear are all endemic. Most species region for amphibians in the world (664 spp), 450 of which are on the 2004 IUCN Red List. A quarter of its habitat still remains, threats include: mining, timber extraction, oil exploration, and narcotics plantations, hydroelectric dams, cattle ranching and invasive species.

Tropical Andes Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species Endemic Threatened Birds Endemic Threatened Mammals Endemic Threatened Amphibians Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 1, 542, 644 385, 661 15, 000 110 14 363 2 37 Area Protected (km 2) 246, 871 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 121, 650

Caucasus q q q q Includes desert, savanna, arid woodland, and forests biomes High levels of endemic plant species. Mountainous landscapes have two species of highly threatened Caucasian turs (mountain goats). Political turmoil provides lack of governmental regulation. Forest clearing for fuel wood, illegal hunting and plant collecting are serious threats The intact areas only really exist in the higher mountain regions The plains experiencing the greatest levels of destruction.

Caucasus Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 532, 658 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 143, 818 Endemic Plant Species 1, 600 Endemic Threatened Birds 0 Endemic Threatened Mammals 2 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 2 Extinct Species 0 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 68 Area Protected (km 2) 42, 721 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 35, 538

Irano-Anatolian q q q Forms a natural Mountain barrier between the Mediterranean Basin and the dry plateaus of Western Asia. Consists of mountains and interior basins. Contain many centers of local endemism. Nearly 400 plant species are found only along the Anatolian Diagonal, a floristic line that crosses Inner Anatolia. Many of Turkey's 1, 200 endemic species occur only to the immediate east or west of the divide. The hotspot includes four endemic and threatened species of viper.

Irano-Anatolian Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 899, 773 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 134, 966 Endemic Plant Species 2, 500 Endemic Threatened Birds 0 Endemic Threatened Mammals 3 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 2 Extinct Speciesâ? 0 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 58 Area Protected (km 2) 56, 193 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 25, 783

Mediterranean Basin q q The flora include 22, 500 endemic vascular plant species (4 x more in the rest of Europe. Includes many endemic reptile species. Threatened species are increasingly confined to fragmented and isolated patches due to tourism/resort developments The Mediterranean monk-seal, the barbary macaque and the Iberian lynx, which is Critically Endangered, are among the region's most threatened species.

Mediterranean Basin Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 2, 085, 292 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 98, 009 Endemic Plant Species 11, 700 Endemic Threatened Birds 9 Endemic Threatened Mammals 11 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 14 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 5 111 Area Protected (km 2) 90, 242 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 28, 751

Mountains of Central Asia q q q Comprising two of Asia's major mountain ranges, Known to early Persians as the "roof of the world. " The hotspot's ecosystems include glaciers to deserts Include a highly threatened type of walnut-fruit forest, that contains ancestors of domestic fruit varieties (storehouse of genetic diversity). The hotspot is also home to a rich variety of ungulates, including the threatened argali wild sheep.

Mountains of Central Asia Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 863, 362 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 172, 672 Endemic Plant Species 1, 500 Endemic Threatened Birds 0 Endemic Threatened Mammals 3 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 1 Extinct Species 0 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 42 Area Protected (km 2) 59, 563 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 58, 605

Cape Floristic Region q q q Evergreen fire-dependent shrublands characterize the landscape One of the world's five Mediterranean hotspots. Home to the greatest non-tropical concentration of higher plant species in the world, Only hotspot that encompasses an entire floral kingdom, and holds five of South Africa's 12 endemic plant families and 160 endemic genera. The geometric tortoise, the Cape sugar-bird, and a number of antelope species are characteristic species.

Cape Floristic Region Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 78, 555 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 15, 711 Endemic Plant Species 6, 210 Endemic Threatened Birds 0 Endemic Threatened Mammals 1 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 7 Extinct Species 1 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 51 Area Protected (km 2) 10, 859 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 10, 154

Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa q q q Small and fragmented, these forest high levels of biodiversity. 40, 000 cultivated varieties of African violet, (US $100 million global trade) are derived from a few species of this hotspot Include a variety of primate species and three endemic and highly threatened monkey and two endemic bushbaby spp. The Tana River has two critically threatened and endemic primates, the Tana River red colobus and the Tana River mangabey. Agricultural expansion is the biggest threat. Poor soils, increasing populations, subsistence agriculture and commercial farming consume increasing amounts of natural habitat.

Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 291, 250 29, 125 1, 750 Endemic Threatened Birds 2 Endemic Threatened Mammals 6 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 4 Extinct Species 0 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 52 Area Protected (km 2) 50, 889 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 11, 343

Eastern Afromontane q q This hotspot is distributed along the eastern edge of Africa, from Saudi Arabia in the north to Zimbabwe. Although fragmented, all patches have a similar flora. The Albertine Rift harbors more endemic mammals, birds, and amphibians than any other African region. A complex geological history has resulted in the formation of a series of unique freshwater lakes of immense fish diversity (e. g. 617 endemic fish species). Threats include agriculture, (bananas, beans, and tea) and the growing bushmeat “industry”

Eastern Afromontane Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 1, 017, 806 106, 870 2, 356 Endemic Threatened Birds 35 Endemic Threatened Mammals 48 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 30 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 1 95 154, 132 59, 191

Guinean Forests of West Africa q q q The lowland forests of West Africa are home to more than a quarter of Africa's mammals, including more than 20 spp. of primates. Logging, mining, hunting and human population growth are placing extreme stress on the forests, however, threatening species such as the Jentink's duiker, pygmy hippopotamus, and scattered populations of western chimpanzees. Five Endemic Bird Areas lie partly or entirely within the hotspot.

Guinean Forests of West Africa Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 620, 314 93, 047 1, 800 Endemic Threatened Birds 31 Endemic Threatened Mammals 35 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 49 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 0 137 108, 104 18, 880

Horn of Africa q q q q Known for its biological diversity for thousands of years. One of only two hotspots that is entirely arid Possesses endemic, threatened antelope, such as the beira, the dibatag, and Speke‘s gazelle. Has more endemic reptiles than any other region in Africa. Endemics include Somali wild ass and sacred baboon. Is one of the most degraded hotspots with only five percent of its original habitat remaining. Overgrazing and charcoal harvesting are destructive forces, but a lack of government control is problematic.

Horn of Africa Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 1, 659, 363 82, 968 2, 750 Endemic Threatened Birds 9 Endemic Threatened Mammals 8 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 1 Extinct Species 1 Human Population Density (people/km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 23 145, 322 51, 229

Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands q q q High endemism with eight plant, four bird, and five primate families. Madagascar's more than 50 lemur spp. are biodiversity highlights. A further 15 species are extinct due to human influence. Contain a number of Critically Endangered bird species. The Seychelles possess the only endemic family of amphibians: the Sooglossidae The Aldabra giant tortoise, is a well known endemic.

Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 600, 461 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 60, 046 Endemic Plant Species 11, 600 Endemic Threatened Birds 57 Endemic Threatened Mammals 51 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 61 Extinct Species 45 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 32 Area Protected (km 2) 18, 482 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 14, 664

Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany q q q Found along the east coast of southern Africa below the Great Escarpment. An important center of plant endemism. Possess nearly 600 tree species (highest of any temperate forest). Bird-of-paradise flower is a distinctive hotspot endemic. Southern subspecies of white rhinoceros rescued from extinction is a well known African conservation success. Much of the once expansive grasslands and forests where the large mammals occur is threatened from industrial and local farming.

Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 274, 136 67, 163 1, 900 Endemic Threatened Birds 0 Endemic Threatened Mammals 2 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 6 Extinct Species 0 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 70 Area Protected (km 2) 23, 051 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 20, 322

Succulent Karoo q q q q Occurs in South Africa and Namibia World's richest succulent flora Exceptionally high levels of plant endemism (69%) with some unique forms like the tree-like succulent called halfmens, and Aloes with tree growth forms (Aloe pillansi) Reptiles have high levels of endemism (lizards and especially tortoises) One of only two entirely arid ecosystems with hotspot status Grazing, agriculture and mining, especially for diamonds and heavy metals, threaten this fragile hotspot. Low population densities are some mitigation

Succulent Karoo Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 102, 691 29, 780 2, 439 Endemic Threatened Birds 0 Endemic Threatened Mammals 1 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 1 Extinct Species 1 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 4 Area Protected (km 2) 2, 567 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 1, 890

East Melanesian Islands q Once largely intact, the 1, 600 East Melanesian Islands are now a hotspot, due, sadly, to accelerating levels of habitat loss, which has been caused chiefly by excessive logging, mining, and unsustainable farming practices. The region is one of the most geographically complex areas on Earth. Isolation and adaptive radiation have led to very high levels of endemism, both within the whole hotspot and on single islands. Notable endemic species include the majestic Solomons sea-eagle and more than a dozen threatened species of flying fox. The islands also harbor a diverse group of vascular plants species, including 3, 000 endemics.

East Melanesian Islands Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 99, 384 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 29, 815 Endemic Plant Species 3, 000 Endemic Threatened Birds 33 Endemic Threatened Mammals 20 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 5 Extinct Species 6 Human Population Density (people/km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 13 5, 677 0

Himalaya q q q Contains the world's highest mountains, including Mt. Everest. These rise abruptly, resulting in a diversity of ecosystems that range from alluvial grasslands and subtropical broadleaf forests to alpine meadows above the tree line. Vascular plants have even been recorded at more than 6, 000 meters. The hotspot is home to important populations of numerous large birds and mammals, including vultures, tigers, elephants, rhinos and wild water buffalo.

Himalaya Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 741, 706 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 185, 427 Endemic Plant Species 3, 160 Endemic Threatened Birds 8 Endemic Threatened Mammals 4 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 4 Extinct Species 0 Human Population Density (people/km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 123 112, 578 77, 739

Indo-Burma q q Includes more than 2 million km² of tropical Asia, Indo-Burma and its biodiversity is still to bediscovered. Six large mammal species have been discovered in the last 12 years: large-antlered muntjac, Annamite muntjac, grey-shanked douc, Annamite striped rabbit, leaf deer, and saola. Contains many endemism freshwater turtle species, most of which are threatened with extinction, due to over-harvesting and habitat loss. Diverse avian biodiversity (1, 300 spp. ) including the threatened white-eared night-heron, grey-crowned crocias, and the orange-necked partridge.

Indo-Burma Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 2, 373, 057 118, 653 7, 000 Endemic Threatened Birds 18 Endemic Threatened Mammals 25 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 35 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 1 134 Area Protected (km 2) 235, 758 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 132, 283

Japan (Island Archipelago) q q q These islands stretch from the humid subtropics in the south to the boreal zone in the north Include a wide variety of climates and ecosystems. A quarter of the vertebrate species in this hotspot are endemic, including the Critically Endangered Okinawa woodpecker and the Japanese macaque (Snow Monkeys) Exceptionally high diversity of amphibians three-quarters of which are endemic Urban development, invasive alien species such as the Indian grey mongoose, the Siberian weasel, and the large mouthed bass threaten local biodiversity.

Japan (Island Archipelago) Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 373, 490 74, 698 1, 950 Endemic Threatened Birds 10 Endemic Threatened Mammals 21 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 19 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 7 336 Area Protected (km 2) 62, 025 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 21, 918

Mountains of Southwest China q q Great variations in climate and topography, this Mountainous habitats has the most endemicrich temperate flora in the world. The golden monkey, giant panda, red panda, and a number of pheasants are threatened endemics. Illegal hunting, overgrazing and firewood collection are primary threats to biodiversity The construction of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River is the largest ever and has impacted and will continue to heavily threaten this hotspot’s biodiversity.

Mountains of Southwest China Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 262, 446 20, 996 3, 500 Endemic Threatened Birds 2 Endemic Threatened Mammals 3 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 3 Extinct Species 0 Human Population Density (people/km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 32 14, 034 4, 273

New Caledonia q q q Only the size of New Jersey this South Pacific island includes five endemic plant families. It possess the world's only parasitic conifer and nearly twothirds off the world's species of Araucaria trees, all of which are endemic. Nickel mining, forest destruction and invasive species threaten native fauna such as the kagu, an Endangered bird with a distinctive crest that is the only surviving member of its family.

New Caledonia Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 18, 972 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 5, 122 Endemic Plant Species 2, 432 Endemic Threatened Birds 7 Endemic Threatened Mammals 3 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 0 Extinct Species 1 Human Population Density (people/km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 11 4, 192 497

New Zealand q q q A mountainous archipelago dominated by temperate rainforests. Fauna is mostly endemic e. g. kiwi. Mammals (2 bat spp. ), amphibians, and reptiles all endemic. Within 700 years of being occupied by humans 50 bird spp. have become extinct. Invasive species is the most serious threat to the flora and fauna. Habitat destruction, through deforestation and wetland drainage, is also a key problem.

New Zealand Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species Endemic Threatened Birds 270, 197 59, 443 1, 865 63 Endemic Threatened Mammals 3 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 4 Extinct Species 23 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 14 Area Protected (km 2) 74, 260 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 59, 794

Philippines q q q An archipelago of more than 7 100 islands of immense biodiversity Endemic species restricted to forest fragments with only 7% remaining. Has over 6, 000 plant species and many birds species e. g. Cebu flower pecker, Philippine cockatoo, Visayan wrinkled hornbill, and huge Philippine eagle. Amphibian endemism unusually high with unique species e. g. panther flying frog. One of the most endangered areas. Historically logged for timber products, forests now being cleared for farming needs and developments.

Philippines Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 297, 179 20, 803 6, 091 Endemic Threatened Birds 56 Endemic Threatened Mammals 47 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 48 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 2 273 Area Protected (km 2) 32, 404 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 18, 060

Polynesia-Micronesia q q q Comprising 4, 500 islands stretched across the southern Pacific Ocean. Is the epicenter of the current global extinction crisis. Within 200 years of the first Europeans 25 bird species have gone extinct Extinctions due to introduced invasive species and overhunting. The spectacular endemic honeycreepers and other forest birds of the Hawaiian Islands are especially seriously threatened.

Polynesia-Micronesia Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 47, 239 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 10, 015 Endemic Plant Species Endemic Threatened Birds 3, 074 90 Endemic Threatened Mammals 8 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 1 Extinct Species 43 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 59 Area Protected (km 2) 2, 436 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 2, 088

Southwest Australia q q q This hot spot includes forest, woodlands, shrublands, and heaths characterized by high plant and reptile endemism. Numbat, honey possum, and the redcapped parrot are unique vertebrate species. Due to dry and hot conditions the western swamp turtle hibernates for two-thirds of year and may be the world’s most threatened freshwater turtle species, conservation efforts are improving the situation. habitat loss through agricultural expansion, accentuated by extensive fertilizer use contribute to declining biodiversity Invasive alien species (foxes and cats) threaten native fauna.

Southwest Australia Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 356, 717 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 107, 015 Endemic Plant Species 2, 948 Endemic Threatened Birds 3 Endemic Threatened Mammals 6 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 3 Extinct Species 2 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 5 Area Protected (km 2) 38, 379 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 38, 258

Sundaland q q The spectacular flora of this hotspot are succumbing to the growth of industrial forestry and international animal trade that claims tigers, monkeys, and turtle species for food and medicine in other countries. Populations of the orangutan, found only in this hotspot, are in dramatic decline. The last refuges of two Southeast Asia rhino species are also found on the islands of Java and Sumatra. Forest use for rubber, oil palm, and pulp production are detrimental forces facing biodiversity in the hotspot.

Sundaland Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 1, 501, 063 100, 571 15, 000 Endemic Threatened Birds 43 Endemic Threatened Mammals 60 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 59 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 4 153 179, 723 77, 408

Wallacea q q q The flora and fauna of Wallacea are so varied that every island in this hotspot needs protection The hotspot is second only to the Tropical Andes in terms of bird endemism despite its relatively small land area. The world's largest lizard, the Komodo dragon, is restricted to the islands of Komodo, Padar, Rinca, and Flores. Forests are being cleared at increasing rates due to escalating populations. Deforestation was caused by the government sponsored program, which moved people from overcrowded islands to remote, sparsely inhabited one.

Wallacea Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 338, 494 50, 774 1, 500 Endemic Threatened Birds 49 Endemic Threatened Mammals 44 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 7 Extinct Species 3 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 81 Area Protected (km 2) 24, 387 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 19, 702

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka q q q q Population pressure on forests due to demands for timber/agricultural land. In Sri Lanka, only 1. 5 percent of the original forest remains. Remaining forests are heavily fragmented. Edges of protected areas have illegal activities of farmers, loggers, and poachers. Annual monsoons with high mountain regions, contribute to numerous plant, reptile, and amphibian endemics. Sir Lanka alone may have as many as 140 endemic species of amphibians. Contains populations of Asian elephants, Indian tigers, and the Endangered lion-tailed macaques. Freshwater fish endemism is extremely high as well, with over 140 native species.

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) Endemic Plant Species 189, 611 43, 611 3, 049 Endemic Threatened Birds 10 Endemic Threatened Mammals 14 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 87 Extinct Species 20 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 261 Area Protected (km 2) 26, 130 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV 21, 259